/*
 * GENerational Conservative Garbage Collector for SBCL
 */

/*
 * This software is part of the SBCL system. See the README file for
 * more information.
 *
 * This software is derived from the CMU CL system, which was
 * written at Carnegie Mellon University and released into the
 * public domain. The software is in the public domain and is
 * provided with absolutely no warranty. See the COPYING and CREDITS
 * files for more information.
 */

/*
 * For a review of garbage collection techniques (e.g. generational
 * GC) and terminology (e.g. "scavenging") see Paul R. Wilson,
 * "Uniprocessor Garbage Collection Techniques" available at
 *   <https://www.cs.rice.edu/~javaplt/311/Readings/wilson92uniprocessor.pdf>
 * or
 *   <ftp://ftp.cs.utexas.edu/pub/garbage/bigsurv.ps>.
 */

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <errno.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <inttypes.h>
#include "sbcl.h"
#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_WIN32) && defined(LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD)
#include "pthreads_win32.h"
#else
#include <signal.h>
#endif
#include "runtime.h"
#include "os.h"
#include "interr.h"
#include "globals.h"
#include "interrupt.h"
#include "validate.h"
#include "lispregs.h"
#include "arch.h"
#include "gc.h"
#include "gc-internal.h"
#include "gc-private.h"
#include "gencgc-private.h"
#include "thread.h"
#include "getallocptr.h"
#include "alloc.h"
#include "code.h"
#include "genesis/gc-tables.h"
#include "genesis/vector.h"
#include "genesis/weak-pointer.h"
#include "genesis/fdefn.h"
#include "genesis/simple-fun.h"
#include "save.h"
#include "genesis/hash-table.h"
#include "genesis/instance.h"
#include "genesis/layout.h"
#include "hopscotch.h"
#include "genesis/cons.h"
#include "forwarding-ptr.h"
#include "lispregs.h"

/* forward declarations */
page_index_t  gc_find_freeish_pages(page_index_t *restart_page_ptr, sword_t nbytes,
                                    int page_type_flag, generation_index_t gen);


/*
 * GC parameters
 */

/* As usually configured, generations 0-5 are normal collected generations,
   6 is pseudo-static (the objects in which are never moved nor reclaimed),
   and 7 is scratch space used when collecting a generation without promotion,
   wherein it is moved to generation 7 and back again.
 */
/*
 * SCRATCH_GENERATION as we've defined it is kinda stupid because "<"
 * doesn't do what you want. Other choices of value do, and since this an
 * enum, it should be possible to change. Except it isn't because .. reasons.
 * Here are some alternatives:
 *  A: gen 0 through 6 remain as-is and SCRATCH becomes -1
 *
 *  B: 1 = nursery, 2 = older, ... up through "old" 6 which becomes the new 7;
 *     and SCRATCH becomes 0. This is like alternative (A) but avoids negatives.
 *
 *  C: (probably the best)
 *  generations are stored with an implied decimal and one bit of fraction
 *  representing a half step so that:
 *     #b0000 = 0, #b0001 = 1/2   | #b0010 = 1, #b0011 = 1 1/2
 *     #b0100 = 2, #b0101 = 2 1/2 | #b0110 = 3, #b0111 = 3 1/2 ...
 *  up to 6 1/2. When GCing without promotion, we'd raise each object by half
 *  a generation, and then demote en masse, which is good because it makes the
 *  scratch pages older than from_space but younger than the youngest root gen.
 *
 * Of course, you could try to solve all this by keeping the existing numbering,
 * but expressing comparison "a < b" as either:
 *     "logical_gen(a) < logical_gen(b)" // re-map numerically before compare
 *  or "gen_lessp(a,b)" // just rename the comparator
 *
 * I generally prefer numeric comparison to just work, though we have a further
 * difficulty that page_table[page].gen is not always the generation of an object,
 * as when it is non-large and pinned. So the helpers might be needed anyway.
 */

enum {
    SCRATCH_GENERATION = PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION+1,
    NUM_GENERATIONS
};

/* Largest allocation seen since last GC. */
os_vm_size_t large_allocation = 0;


/*
 * debugging
 */

/* the verbosity level. All non-error messages are disabled at level 0;
 * and only a few rare messages are printed at level 1. */
boolean gencgc_verbose = 0;

/* FIXME: At some point enable the various error-checking things below
 * and see what they say. */

/* We hunt for pointers to old-space, when GCing generations >= verify_gen.
 * Set verify_gens to HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION + 2 to disable this kind of
 * check. */
generation_index_t verify_gens = HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION + 2;

/* Should we do a pre-scan of the heap before it's GCed? */
boolean pre_verify_gen_0 = 0; // FIXME: should be named 'pre_verify_gc'

/* Should we check that newly allocated regions are zero filled? */
boolean gencgc_zero_check = 0;

/* If defined, free pages are read-protected to ensure that nothing
 * accesses them.
 */

/* #define READ_PROTECT_FREE_PAGES */


/*
 * GC structures and variables
 */

/* the total bytes allocated. These are seen by Lisp DYNAMIC-USAGE. */
os_vm_size_t bytes_allocated = 0;
os_vm_size_t auto_gc_trigger = 0;

/* the source and destination generations. These are set before a GC starts
 * scavenging. */
generation_index_t from_space;
generation_index_t new_space;

/* Set to 1 when in GC */
boolean gc_active_p = 0;

/* should the GC be conservative on stack. If false (only right before
 * saving a core), don't scan the stack / mark pages pinned. */
static boolean conservative_stack = 1;

/* An array of page structures is allocated on gc initialization.
 * This helps to quickly map between an address and its page structure.
 * page_table_pages is set from the size of the dynamic space. */
page_index_t page_table_pages;
struct page *page_table;
lispobj gc_object_watcher;
int gc_traceroot_criterion;
int gc_n_stack_pins;
struct hopscotch_table pinned_objects;

/* This is always 0 except during gc_and_save() */
lispobj lisp_init_function;

/// Constants defined in gc-internal:
///   #define BOXED_PAGE_FLAG 1
///   #define UNBOXED_PAGE_FLAG 2
///   #define OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG 8

static inline boolean page_free_p(page_index_t page) {
    return (page_table[page].type == FREE_PAGE_FLAG);
}

static inline boolean page_boxed_p(page_index_t page) {
    return (page_table[page].type & BOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
}

/// Return true if low 4 'type' bits are 0zz1, false otherwise (z = don't-care)
/// i.e. true of pages which could hold boxed or partially boxed objects.
static inline boolean page_boxed_no_region_p(page_index_t page) {
    return (page_table[page].type & 9) == BOXED_PAGE_FLAG;
}

static inline boolean protect_page_p(page_index_t page, generation_index_t generation) {
    return (page_boxed_no_region_p(page)
            && (page_bytes_used(page) != 0)
            && !page_table[page].pinned
            && (page_table[page].gen == generation));
}

/* Calculate the start address for the given page number. */
inline char *
page_address(page_index_t page_num)
{
    return (void*)(DYNAMIC_SPACE_START + (page_num * GENCGC_CARD_BYTES));
}

/* Calculate the address where the allocation region associated with
 * the page starts. */
static inline void *
page_scan_start(page_index_t page_index)
{
    return page_address(page_index)-page_scan_start_offset(page_index);
}

/* True if the page starts a contiguous block. */
static inline boolean
page_starts_contiguous_block_p(page_index_t page_index)
{
    // Don't use the preprocessor macro: 0 means 0.
    return page_table[page_index].scan_start_offset_ == 0;
}

/* True if the page is the last page in a contiguous block. */
static inline boolean
page_ends_contiguous_block_p(page_index_t page_index,
                             generation_index_t __attribute__((unused)) gen)
{
    // There is *always* a next page in the page table.
    boolean answer = page_bytes_used(page_index) < GENCGC_CARD_BYTES
                  || page_starts_contiguous_block_p(page_index+1);
#ifdef DEBUG
    boolean safe_answer =
           (/* page doesn't fill block */
            (page_bytes_used(page_index) < GENCGC_CARD_BYTES)
            /* page is last allocated page */
            || ((page_index + 1) >= next_free_page)
            /* next page contains no data */
            || !page_bytes_used(page_index + 1)
            /* next page is in different generation */
            || (page_table[page_index + 1].gen != gen)
            /* next page starts its own contiguous block */
            || (page_starts_contiguous_block_p(page_index + 1)));
    gc_assert(answer == safe_answer);
#endif
    return answer;
}

/* We maintain the invariant that pages with FREE_PAGE_FLAG have
 * scan_start of zero, to optimize page_ends_contiguous_block_p().
 * Clear all other flags as well, since they don't mean anything,
 * and a store is simpler than a bitwise operation */
static inline void reset_page_flags(page_index_t page) {
    page_table[page].scan_start_offset_ = 0;
    // Any C compiler worth its salt should merge these into one store
    page_table[page].type = page_table[page].write_protected
        = page_table[page].write_protected_cleared = page_table[page].pinned = 0;
}

/// External function for calling from Lisp.
page_index_t ext_find_page_index(void *addr) { return find_page_index(addr); }

static os_vm_size_t
npage_bytes(page_index_t npages)
{
    gc_assert(npages>=0);
    return ((os_vm_size_t)npages)*GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
}

/* Check that X is a higher address than Y and return offset from Y to
 * X in bytes. */
static inline os_vm_size_t
addr_diff(void *x, void *y)
{
    gc_assert(x >= y);
    return (uintptr_t)x - (uintptr_t)y;
}

/* a structure to hold the state of a generation
 *
 * CAUTION: If you modify this, make sure to touch up the alien
 * definition in src/code/gc.lisp accordingly. ...or better yes,
 * deal with the FIXME there...
 */
struct generation {
    /* the bytes allocated to this generation */
    os_vm_size_t bytes_allocated;

    /* the number of bytes at which to trigger a GC */
    os_vm_size_t gc_trigger;

    /* to calculate a new level for gc_trigger */
    os_vm_size_t bytes_consed_between_gc;

    /* the number of GCs since the last raise */
    int num_gc;

    /* the number of GCs to run on the generations before raising objects to the
     * next generation */
    int number_of_gcs_before_promotion;

    /* the cumulative sum of the bytes allocated to this generation. It is
     * cleared after a GC on this generations, and update before new
     * objects are added from a GC of a younger generation. Dividing by
     * the bytes_allocated will give the average age of the memory in
     * this generation since its last GC. */
    os_vm_size_t cum_sum_bytes_allocated;

    /* a minimum average memory age before a GC will occur helps
     * prevent a GC when a large number of new live objects have been
     * added, in which case a GC could be a waste of time */
    double minimum_age_before_gc;
};

/* an array of generation structures. There needs to be one more
 * generation structure than actual generations as the oldest
 * generation is temporarily raised then lowered. */
struct generation generations[NUM_GENERATIONS];

/* the oldest generation that is will currently be GCed by default.
 * Valid values are: 0, 1, ... HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION
 *
 * The default of HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION enables GC on all generations.
 *
 * Setting this to 0 effectively disables the generational nature of
 * the GC. In some applications generational GC may not be useful
 * because there are no long-lived objects.
 *
 * An intermediate value could be handy after moving long-lived data
 * into an older generation so an unnecessary GC of this long-lived
 * data can be avoided. */
generation_index_t gencgc_oldest_gen_to_gc = HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION;

/* The maximum used page in the heap is maintained and used to update
 * ALLOCATION_POINTER which is used by the room function to limit its
 * search of the heap. XX Gencgc obviously needs to be better
 * integrated with the Lisp code. */

page_index_t next_free_page; // upper (exclusive) bound on used page range

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
/* This lock is to prevent multiple threads from simultaneously
 * allocating new regions which overlap each other.  Note that the
 * majority of GC is single-threaded, but alloc() may be called from
 * >1 thread at a time and must be thread-safe.  This lock must be
 * seized before all accesses to generations[] or to parts of
 * page_table[] that other threads may want to see */
static pthread_mutex_t free_pages_lock = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER;
#endif

extern os_vm_size_t gencgc_release_granularity;
os_vm_size_t gencgc_release_granularity = GENCGC_RELEASE_GRANULARITY;

extern os_vm_size_t gencgc_alloc_granularity;
os_vm_size_t gencgc_alloc_granularity = GENCGC_ALLOC_GRANULARITY;


/*
 * miscellaneous heap functions
 */

/* Count the number of pages in the given generation.
 * Additionally, if 'n_write_protected' is non-NULL, then assign
 * into *n_write_protected the count of write-protected pages.
 */
static page_index_t
count_generation_pages(generation_index_t generation,
                       page_index_t* n_write_protected)
{
    page_index_t i, total = 0, wp = 0;

    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++)
        if (!page_free_p(i) && (page_table[i].gen == generation)) {
            total++;
            if (page_table[i].write_protected)
                wp++;
        }
    if (n_write_protected)
        *n_write_protected = wp;
    return total;
}

static void show_pinnedobj_count()
{
    page_index_t page;
    int nbytes = 0;
    int n_pinned_largeobj = 0;
    for (page = 0; page < next_free_page; ++page) {
        if (page_table[page].gen == from_space && page_table[page].pinned
                && page_single_obj_p(page)) {
            nbytes += page_bytes_used(page);
            if (page_starts_contiguous_block_p(page))
                ++n_pinned_largeobj;
        }
    }
    fprintf(stderr,
            "/pinned objects(g%d): large=%d (%d bytes), small=%d\n",
            from_space, n_pinned_largeobj, nbytes, pinned_objects.count);
}

/* Work through the pages and add up the number of bytes used for the
 * given generation. */
static __attribute__((unused)) os_vm_size_t
count_generation_bytes_allocated (generation_index_t gen)
{
    page_index_t i;
    os_vm_size_t result = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        if (!page_free_p(i) && page_table[i].gen == gen)
            result += page_bytes_used(i);
    }
    return result;
}

/* Return the average age of the memory in a generation. */
extern double
generation_average_age(generation_index_t gen_index)
{
    struct generation* gen = &generations[gen_index];
    if (gen->bytes_allocated == 0)
        return 0.0;

    return (double)gen->cum_sum_bytes_allocated / (double)gen->bytes_allocated;
}

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_X86
extern void fpu_save(void *);
extern void fpu_restore(void *);
#endif

#define PAGE_INDEX_FMT PRIdPTR

extern void
write_generation_stats(FILE *file)
{
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_X86
    int fpu_state[27];

    /* Can end up here after calling alloc_tramp which doesn't prepare
     * the x87 state, and the C ABI uses a different mode */
    fpu_save(fpu_state);
#endif

    /* Print the heap stats. */
    fprintf(file,
            "Gen  Boxed   Code    Raw  LgBox LgCode  LgRaw  Pin       Alloc     Waste        Trig      WP GCs Mem-age\n");

    generation_index_t i, begin, end;
    // Print from the lowest gen that has any allocated pages.
    for (begin = 0; begin <= PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION; ++begin)
        if (generations[begin].bytes_allocated) break;
    // Print up to and including the highest gen that has any allocated pages.
    for (end = SCRATCH_GENERATION; end >= 0; --end)
        if (generations[end].bytes_allocated) break;

    for (i = begin; i <= end; i++) {
        page_index_t page;
        // page kinds: small {boxed,code,unboxed}, large {boxed,code,unboxed}
        page_index_t pagect[6], pinned_cnt = 0, tot_pages = 0;

        memset(pagect, 0, sizeof pagect);
        for (page = 0; page < next_free_page; page++)
            if (!page_free_p(page) && page_table[page].gen == i) {
                int k;
                switch (page_table[page].type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) {
                case CODE_PAGE_TYPE: k = 1; break;
                case UNBOXED_PAGE_FLAG: k = 2; break;
                default: k = 0; break;
                }
                if (page_single_obj_p(page)) k += 3;
                pagect[k]++;
                if (page_table[page].pinned) pinned_cnt++;
            }
        tot_pages = pagect[0] + pagect[1] + pagect[2]
                  + pagect[3] + pagect[4] + pagect[5];
        struct generation* gen = &generations[i];
        gc_assert(gen->bytes_allocated == count_generation_bytes_allocated(i));
        fprintf(file,
                " %d %7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT"%7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT"%7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT
                "%7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT"%7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT"%7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT
                " %4"PAGE_INDEX_FMT
                " %11"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT
                " %9"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT
                " %11"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT
                " %7"PAGE_INDEX_FMT" %3d %7.4f\n",
                i,
                pagect[0], pagect[1], pagect[2], pagect[3], pagect[4], pagect[5],
                pinned_cnt,
                (uintptr_t)gen->bytes_allocated,
                (uintptr_t)npage_bytes(tot_pages) - generations[i].bytes_allocated,
                (uintptr_t)gen->gc_trigger,
                count_generation_pages(i, 0),
                gen->num_gc,
                generation_average_age(i));
    }
    fprintf(file,"           Total bytes allocated    = %13"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT"\n",
            (uintptr_t)bytes_allocated);
    fprintf(file,"           Dynamic-space-size bytes = %13"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT"\n",
            (uintptr_t)dynamic_space_size);

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_X86
    fpu_restore(fpu_state);
#endif
}

extern void
write_heap_exhaustion_report(FILE *file, long available, long requested,
                             struct thread __attribute__((unused)) *thread)
{
    fprintf(file,
            "Heap exhausted during %s: %ld bytes available, %ld requested.\n",
            gc_active_p ? "garbage collection" : "allocation",
            available,
            requested);
    write_generation_stats(file);
    fprintf(file, "GC control variables:\n");
    fprintf(file, "   *GC-INHIBIT* = %s\n   *GC-PENDING* = %s\n",
            read_TLS(GC_INHIBIT,thread)==NIL ? "false" : "true",
            (read_TLS(GC_PENDING, thread) == T) ?
            "true" : ((read_TLS(GC_PENDING, thread) == NIL) ?
                      "false" : "in progress"));
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
    fprintf(file, "   *STOP-FOR-GC-PENDING* = %s\n",
            read_TLS(STOP_FOR_GC_PENDING,thread)==NIL ? "false" : "true");
#endif
}

extern void
print_generation_stats(void)
{
    write_generation_stats(stderr);
}

extern char* gc_logfile;
char * gc_logfile = NULL;

extern void
log_generation_stats(char *logfile, char *header)
{
    if (logfile) {
        FILE * log = fopen(logfile, "a");
        if (log) {
            fprintf(log, "%s\n", header);
            write_generation_stats(log);
            fclose(log);
        } else {
            fprintf(stderr, "Could not open gc logfile: %s\n", logfile);
            fflush(stderr);
        }
    }
}

extern void
report_heap_exhaustion(long available, long requested, struct thread *th)
{
    if (gc_logfile) {
        FILE * log = fopen(gc_logfile, "a");
        if (log) {
            write_heap_exhaustion_report(log, available, requested, th);
            fclose(log);
        } else {
            fprintf(stderr, "Could not open gc logfile: %s\n", gc_logfile);
            fflush(stderr);
        }
    }
    /* Always to stderr as well. */
    write_heap_exhaustion_report(stderr, available, requested, th);
}


#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_X86)
void fast_bzero(void*, size_t); /* in <arch>-assem.S */
#else
#define fast_bzero(addr, count) memset(addr, 0, count)
#endif

/* Zero the memory at ADDR for LENGTH bytes, but use mmap/munmap instead
 * of zeroing it ourselves, i.e. in practice give the memory back to the
 * OS. Generally done after a large GC.
 */
static void __attribute__((unused))
zero_range_with_mmap(os_vm_address_t addr, os_vm_size_t length) {
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_LINUX
    // We use MADV_DONTNEED only on Linux due to differing semantics from BSD.
    // Linux treats it as a demand that the memory be 0-filled, or refreshed
    // from a file that backs the range. BSD takes it as a hint that you don't
    // care if the memory has to brought in from swap when next accessed,
    // i.e. it's not a request to make a user-visible alteration to memory.
    // So in theory this can bring a page in from the core file, if we happen
    // to hit a page that resides in the portion of memory mapped by coreparse.
    // In practice this should not happen because objects from a core file can't
    // become garbage. Except in save-lisp-and-die they can, and we must be
    // cautious not to resurrect bytes that originally came from the file.
    if ((os_vm_address_t)addr >= anon_dynamic_space_start) {
        if (madvise(addr, length, MADV_DONTNEED) != 0)
            lose("madvise failed");
    } else
#endif
    {
        void *new_addr;
        os_invalidate(addr, length);
        new_addr = os_validate(NOT_MOVABLE, addr, length);
        if (new_addr == NULL || new_addr != addr) {
            lose("remap_free_pages: page moved, %p ==> %p",
                 addr, new_addr);
        }
    }
}

/*
Regarding zero_pages(), if the next operation would be memcpy(),
then zeroing is a total waste of time and we should skip it.

The most simple case seems to be ALLOCATE-CODE-OBJECT because we can treat pages
of code consistently in terms of whether the newly allocated page is for Lisp or
for the garbage collector's transport function. The object is basically an unboxed
object, so there are no "wild pointers" in it, at least until the boxed size is
written. So we can skip prezeroing because the bulk of the object will be subject
to memcpy() from either an octet vector produced by the assember, or a fasl stream.
We only need to prezero the boxed words. GC avoids prezeroing of its code pages.

The next simplest case seems to be unboxed pages - Lisp can never directly request
an unboxed page (at least in the current design), so any unboxed page is for GC,
and will always be used for a transport function. We can skip zeroing those pages,
because even if GC does not fill the page completely, it can not be used for other
object allocations from Lisp.

Boxed pages are the problem. Except for pages which are 100% used by GC, they  might
later by consumed in part by Lisp. Unfortunately we don't know whether it will be
100% used until it's 100% used. So we can't skip zeroing.
However, in general, we should try to convert Lisp allocators to be aware of
the issue of zeroing rather than relying on C to do it, as this will relieve
a pain point (a so-called "impedence mismatch") when trying to plug in other
allocators that do not intrinsically give you zero-initialized memory.

The cases can be broken down as follows:
 - unboxed objects can always be zeroed at leisure in Lisp. This is hard only because
   Lisp does not distinguish in the slow path allocator whether it is asking for boxed
   or unboxed memory, so even if we made the Lisp code perform explicit zero-filling of
   strings and numeric vectors, the allocation macros needs to be enhanced
   to inform C of the fact that zeroing will happen in Lisp whenever we have to go to
   the slow path; and we'll need unboxed thread-local regions of course.

 - structure objects almost always have all slots written immediately after
   allocation, so they don't necessarily demand prezeroing, but we have to think about
   to the scope of the pseudatomic wrapping. One of the following must pertain:
   * Widen the pseudo-atomic scope so that initialization happens within it,
     never permitting GC to see old garbage, OR
   * Store the layout last rather than first, and say that until the layout is stored,
     GC might see garbage, treating any bit pattern as a conservative pointer.
     (because there are two separate issues: ignoring old values, and ensuring that
     newly written slots are perceived as enlivening what they point to)
   * Add some bits indicating how many slots of the object are initialized.
     This seems impractical

 - general arrays present the largest problem - the choice of when to zero should be
   based on whether the object is large or not and whether one of :initial-element
   or :initial-contents were specified. If the initial-element is NIL, then the initial
   zero-fill was a waste.

 - closures and everything else except arrays are basically structure-like
   and have the same issue. Fixed-sized objects are simple though - e.g. value-cells
   can move the store of the 1 word payload inside pseudo-atomic if it isn't already.
   Thusly, any value-cell could go on a non-prezeroed page.

In general, deciding when to zero-initialize to attain maximum performance is nontrivial.
See "Why Nothing Matters: The Impact of Zeroing"
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/zero-oopsla-2011.pdf

 */

/* Zero the pages from START to END (inclusive). Generally done just after
 * a new region has been allocated.
 */
static inline void zero_pages(page_index_t start, page_index_t end) {
    if (start <= end)
        fast_bzero(page_address(start), npage_bytes(1+end-start));
}
/* Zero the address range from START up to but not including END */
static inline void zero_range(char* start, char* end) {
    if (start < end)
        fast_bzero(start, end-start);
}

// A robustness testing flag: when true, pages claimed for purpose of the current
// GC cycle are prefilled with garbage bytes instead of zeroes.
// This is fine for GC because it always uses memcpy() from the old data.
// Lisp never directly requests unboxed pages, so this is always acceptable
// on unboxed pages. Lisp does directly request pages of code, but the code allocator
// is compatible with the non-prezeroing convention.
// The last case is boxed pages- we can only do this on boxed pages that will be
// consumed by GC and only by GC (i.e. not pages that were either directly
// allocated by lisp, or whose tail could be picked up by lisp)
// This could be made to work for those pages as well if we remember which pages
// haven't been fully used prior to returning to lisp, and then zero-filling
// any unused bytes just in case lisp picks up the remaining part of the page.
char gc_allocate_dirty = 0;
/* The generation currently being allocated to. */
static generation_index_t gc_alloc_generation;

/* Zero the pages from START to END (inclusive), except for those
 * pages that are known to already zeroed. Mark all pages in the
 * ranges as non-zeroed.
 */
void zero_dirty_pages(page_index_t start, page_index_t end, int page_type) {
    page_index_t i, j;

#ifdef READ_PROTECT_FREE_PAGES
    os_protect(page_address(start), npage_bytes(1+end-start), OS_VM_PROT_ALL);
#endif
    // If allocating boxed pages to gen0 (or scratch which becomes gen0) then
    // this allocation is potentially going to be extended by lisp (if it happens to
    // pick up the tail of the page as its next available region)
    // and we really have to zeroize the page. Otherwise, if not boxed or allocating
    // memory that is entirely within GC, then lisp will never use parts of the page.
    // So we can avoid pre-zeroing all codes pages, all unboxed pages,
    // and all boxed pages allocated to gen>=1.
    boolean usable_by_lisp =
        gc_alloc_generation == 0 || (gc_alloc_generation == SCRATCH_GENERATION
                                     && from_space == 0);
    boolean must_zero = ((page_type == BOXED_PAGE_FLAG && usable_by_lisp) || page_type == 0);

    if (gc_allocate_dirty) { // For testing only
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_64_BIT
        lispobj word = 0x100 | 5;
#else
        lispobj word = 0x100 | 2;
#endif
        if (must_zero)
            for (i = start; i <= end; i++)
                zero_pages(i, i);
        else
            for (i = start; i <= end; i++) {
                // Write every word with a widetag which if scavenged inavertentiy would call scav_lose().
                // This is purely for testing that the lisp side can deal with unzeroed code pages.
                // Non-code unboxed pages won't been seen by lisp allocation routines.
                lispobj *where = (lispobj*)page_address(i);
                lispobj *limit = (lispobj*)((char*)where + GENCGC_CARD_BYTES);
                char* type_name[3] = {"Boxed","Raw  ","Code "};
                if (gc_allocate_dirty > 1)
                    fprintf(stderr, "dirtying g%d %s %d (%p..%p) [%d->%d]\n",
                            gc_alloc_generation, type_name[page_type-1],
                            (int)i, where, limit, from_space, new_space);
                while (where < limit) *where++ = word;
            }
    } else if (must_zero) {
        // look for contiguous ranges. This is probably without merit, since bzero
        // does not go significantly faster for 2 pages than for 1 page and 1 page.
        for (i = start; i <= end; i++) {
            if (!page_need_to_zero(i)) continue;
            // compute 'j' as the upper exclusive page index bound
            for (j = i+1; (j <= end) && page_need_to_zero(j) ; j++)
                ; /* empty body */
            zero_pages(i, j-1);
            i = j;
        }
    }

    for (i = start; i <= end; i++) {
        set_page_need_to_zero(i, 1);
    }
}


/*
 * To support quick and inline allocation, regions of memory can be
 * allocated and then allocated from with just a free pointer and a
 * check against an end address.
 *
 * Since objects can be allocated to spaces with different properties
 * e.g. boxed/unboxed, generation, ages; there may need to be many
 * allocation regions.
 *
 * Each allocation region may start within a partly used page. Many
 * features of memory use are noted on a page wise basis, e.g. the
 * generation; so if a region starts within an existing allocated page
 * it must be consistent with this page.
 *
 * During the scavenging of the newspace, objects will be transported
 * into an allocation region, and pointers updated to point to this
 * allocation region. It is possible that these pointers will be
 * scavenged again before the allocation region is closed, e.g. due to
 * trans_list which jumps all over the place to cleanup the list. It
 * is important to be able to determine properties of all objects
 * pointed to when scavenging, e.g to detect pointers to the oldspace.
 * Thus it's important that the allocation regions have the correct
 * properties set when allocated, and not just set when closed. The
 * region allocation routines return regions with the specified
 * properties, and grab all the pages, setting their properties
 * appropriately, except that the amount used is not known.
 *
 * These regions are used to support quicker allocation using just a
 * free pointer. The actual space used by the region is not reflected
 * in the pages tables until it is closed. It can't be scavenged until
 * closed.
 *
 * When finished with the region it should be closed, which will
 * update the page tables for the actual space used returning unused
 * space. Further it may be noted in the new regions which is
 * necessary when scavenging the newspace.
 *
 * Large objects may be allocated directly without an allocation
 * region, the page table is updated immediately.
 *
 * Unboxed objects don't contain pointers to other objects and so
 * don't need scavenging. Further they can't contain pointers to
 * younger generations so WP is not needed. By allocating pages to
 * unboxed objects the whole page never needs scavenging or
 * write-protecting. */

/* We use three regions for the current newspace generation. */
struct alloc_region gc_alloc_region[3];

static page_index_t
  alloc_start_pages[4], // one each for large, boxed, unboxed, code
  gencgc_alloc_start_page; // initializer for the preceding array

#define RESET_ALLOC_START_PAGES() \
        alloc_start_pages[0] = gencgc_alloc_start_page; \
        alloc_start_pages[1] = gencgc_alloc_start_page; \
        alloc_start_pages[2] = gencgc_alloc_start_page; \
        alloc_start_pages[3] = gencgc_alloc_start_page

static inline page_index_t
alloc_start_page(int page_type_flag, int large)
{
    if (!(page_type_flag >= 1 && page_type_flag <= 3))
        lose("bad page_type_flag: %d", page_type_flag);
    return alloc_start_pages[large ? 0 : page_type_flag];
}

static inline void
set_alloc_start_page(int page_type_flag, int large, page_index_t page)
{
    if (!(page_type_flag >= 1 && page_type_flag <= 3))
        lose("bad page_type_flag: %d", page_type_flag);
    alloc_start_pages[large ? 0 : page_type_flag] = page;
}
#include "private-cons.inc"

static inline boolean region_closed_p(struct alloc_region* region) {
    return !region->start_addr;
}
#define ASSERT_REGIONS_CLOSED() \
    gc_assert(!((uintptr_t)boxed_region.start_addr \
               |(uintptr_t)unboxed_region.start_addr \
               |(uintptr_t)code_region.start_addr))

/* Find a new region with room for at least the given number of bytes.
 *
 * It starts looking at the current generation's alloc_start_page. So
 * may pick up from the previous region if there is enough space. This
 * keeps the allocation contiguous when scavenging the newspace.
 *
 * The alloc_region should have been closed by a call to
 * gc_close_region(), and will thus be in an empty state.
 *
 * To assist the scavenging functions write-protected pages are not
 * used. Free pages should not be write-protected.
 *
 * It is critical to the conservative GC that the start of regions be
 * known. To help achieve this only small regions are allocated at a
 * time.
 *
 * During scavenging, pointers may be found to within the current
 * region and the page generation must be set so that pointers to the
 * from space can be recognized. Therefore the generation of pages in
 * the region are set to gc_alloc_generation. To prevent another
 * allocation call using the same pages, all the pages in the region
 * are allocated, although they will initially be empty.
 */
static void
gc_alloc_new_region(sword_t nbytes, int page_type_flag, struct alloc_region *alloc_region)
{
    page_index_t first_page;
    page_index_t last_page;
    page_index_t i;
    int ret;

    /*
    FSHOW((stderr,
           "/alloc_new_region for %d bytes from gen %d\n",
           nbytes, gc_alloc_generation));
    */

    /* Check that the region is in a reset state. */
    gc_assert(region_closed_p(alloc_region));
    ret = thread_mutex_lock(&free_pages_lock);
    gc_assert(ret == 0);
    first_page = alloc_start_page(page_type_flag, 0);
    last_page = gc_find_freeish_pages(&first_page, nbytes,
                                      ((nbytes >= (sword_t)GENCGC_CARD_BYTES) ?
                                       SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG : 0) | page_type_flag,
                                      gc_alloc_generation);

    /* Set up the alloc_region. */
    alloc_region->last_page = last_page;
    alloc_region->start_addr = page_address(first_page) + page_bytes_used(first_page);
    alloc_region->free_pointer = alloc_region->start_addr;
    alloc_region->end_addr = page_address(last_page+1);
    gc_assert(find_page_index(alloc_region->start_addr) == first_page);

    /* Set up the pages. */

    /* The first page may have already been in use. */
    /* If so, just assert that it's consistent, otherwise, set it up. */
    if (page_bytes_used(first_page)) {
        gc_assert(page_table[first_page].type == page_type_flag);
        gc_assert(page_table[first_page].gen == gc_alloc_generation);
    } else {
        page_table[first_page].gen = gc_alloc_generation;
    }
    page_table[first_page].type = OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG | page_type_flag;

    for (i = first_page+1; i <= last_page; i++) {
        page_table[i].type = OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG | page_type_flag;
        page_table[i].gen = gc_alloc_generation;
        set_page_scan_start_offset(i,
            addr_diff(page_address(i), alloc_region->start_addr));
    }
    ret = thread_mutex_unlock(&free_pages_lock);
    gc_assert(ret == 0);

    /* If the first page was only partial, don't check whether it's
     * zeroed (it won't be) and don't zero it (since the parts that
     * we're interested in are guaranteed to be zeroed).
     */
    if (page_bytes_used(first_page)) {
        first_page++;
    }

    zero_dirty_pages(first_page, last_page, page_type_flag);

    /* we can do this after releasing free_pages_lock */
    if (gencgc_zero_check) {
        lispobj *p;
        for (p = alloc_region->start_addr;
             (void*)p < alloc_region->end_addr; p++) {
            if (*p != 0) {
                lose("The new region is not zero at %p (start=%p, end=%p).",
                     p, alloc_region->start_addr, alloc_region->end_addr);
            }
        }
    }
}

/* The new_object structure holds the page, byte offset, and size of
 * new regions of objects. Each new area is placed in the array of
 * these structures pointer to by new_areas. new_areas_index holds the
 * offset into new_areas.
 *
 * If new_area overflows NUM_NEW_AREAS then it stops adding them. The
 * later code must detect this and handle it, probably by doing a full
 * scavenge of a generation. */
#define NUM_NEW_AREAS 512

/* 'record_new_regions_below' is the page number (strictly) below which
 * allocations must be tracked. Choosing the boundary cases with care allows
 * for all the required modes of operation without an additional control flag:
 * (1) When allocating from Lisp code, we need not record regions into areas.
 *     In this case 'record_new_regions_below' is 0,
 *     because no page index is less than that value.
 * (2) When performing a full scavenge of newspace, we record regions below the
 *     highest scavenged page thus far. Pages ahead of (at a higher index than)
 *     the pointer which walks all pages can be ignored, because those pages
 *     will be scavenged in the future regardless of where allocations occur.
 * (3) When iteratively scavenging newspace, all regions are tracked in areas,
 *     so this variable is set to 1+page_table_pages,
 *     because every page index is less than that sentinel value.
 */
static page_index_t record_new_regions_below;
struct new_area {
    page_index_t page;
    size_t offset;
    size_t size;
};
static struct new_area *new_areas;
static int new_areas_index;
int new_areas_index_hwm; // high water mark

/* Add a new area to new_areas. */
static void
add_new_area(page_index_t first_page, size_t offset, size_t size)
{
    if (!(first_page < record_new_regions_below))
        return;

    /* Ignore if full. */
    // Technically overflow occurs at 1+ this number, but it's not worth
    // losing sleep (or splitting hairs) over one potentially wasted array cell.
    // i.e. overflow did not necessarily happen if we needed _exactly_ this
    // many areas. But who cares? The limit should not be approached at all.
    if (new_areas_index >= NUM_NEW_AREAS)
        return;

    size_t new_area_start = npage_bytes(first_page) + offset;
    int i, c;
    /* Search backwards for a prior area that this follows from. If
       found this will save adding a new area. */
    for (i = new_areas_index-1, c = 0; (i >= 0) && (c < 8); i--, c++) {
        size_t area_end =
            npage_bytes(new_areas[i].page) + new_areas[i].offset + new_areas[i].size;
        /*FSHOW((stderr,
               "/add_new_area S1 %d %d %d %d\n",
               i, c, new_area_start, area_end));*/
        if (new_area_start == area_end) {
            new_areas[i].size += size;
            return;
        }
    }

    new_areas[new_areas_index].page = first_page;
    new_areas[new_areas_index].offset = offset;
    new_areas[new_areas_index].size = size;
    /*FSHOW((stderr,
           "/new_area %d page %d offset %d size %d\n",
           new_areas_index, first_page, offset, size));*/
    new_areas_index++;
}

/* Update the PTEs for the alloc_region. The region may be added to
 * the new_areas.
 *
 * When done the alloc_region is set up so that the next quick alloc
 * will fail safely and thus a new region will be allocated. Further
 * it is safe to try to re-update the page table of this reset
 * alloc_region.
 *
 * This is the internal implementation of ensure_region_closed(),
 * and not to be invoked as the interface to closing a region.
 */
void
gc_close_region(struct alloc_region *alloc_region, int page_type_flag)
{
    page_index_t first_page = find_page_index(alloc_region->start_addr);
    page_index_t next_page = first_page+1;
    char *page_base = page_address(first_page);
    char *free_pointer = alloc_region->free_pointer;

    // page_bytes_used() can be done without holding a lock. Nothing else
    // affects the usage on the first page of a region owned by this thread.
    page_bytes_t orig_first_page_bytes_used = page_bytes_used(first_page);
    gc_assert(alloc_region->start_addr == page_base + orig_first_page_bytes_used);

    int ret = thread_mutex_lock(&free_pages_lock);
    gc_assert(ret == 0);

    // Mark the region as closed on its first page.
    page_table[first_page].type &= ~(OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG);

    if (free_pointer != alloc_region->start_addr) {
        /* some bytes were allocated in the region */

        /* All the pages used need to be updated */

        /* Update the first page. */
        if (!orig_first_page_bytes_used)
            gc_assert(page_starts_contiguous_block_p(first_page));

        gc_assert(page_table[first_page].type == page_type_flag);
        gc_assert(page_table[first_page].gen == gc_alloc_generation);

        /* Calculate the number of bytes used in this page. This is not
         * always the number of new bytes, unless it was free. */
        os_vm_size_t bytes_used = addr_diff(free_pointer, page_base);
        boolean more;
        if ((more = (bytes_used > GENCGC_CARD_BYTES)))
            bytes_used = GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
        set_page_bytes_used(first_page, bytes_used);

        /* 'region_size' will be the sum of new bytes consumed by the region,
         * EXCLUDING any part of the first page already in use,
         * and any unused part of the final used page */
        os_vm_size_t region_size = bytes_used - orig_first_page_bytes_used;

        /* All the rest of the pages should be accounted for. */
        while (more) {
            gc_assert(page_table[next_page].type ==
                      (OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG | page_type_flag));
            page_table[next_page].type ^= OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG;
            gc_assert(page_bytes_used(next_page) == 0);
            gc_assert(page_table[next_page].gen == gc_alloc_generation);
            page_base += GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
            gc_assert(page_scan_start_offset(next_page) ==
                      addr_diff(page_base, alloc_region->start_addr));

            /* Calculate the number of bytes used in this page. */
            bytes_used = addr_diff(free_pointer, page_base);
            if ((more = (bytes_used > GENCGC_CARD_BYTES)))
                bytes_used = GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
            set_page_bytes_used(next_page, bytes_used);
            region_size += bytes_used;

            next_page++;
        }

        // Now 'next_page' is 1 page beyond those fully accounted for.
        gc_assert(addr_diff(free_pointer, alloc_region->start_addr) == region_size);
        // Update the global totals
        bytes_allocated += region_size;
        generations[gc_alloc_generation].bytes_allocated += region_size;

        /* Set the alloc restart page to the last page of the region. */
        set_alloc_start_page(page_type_flag, 0, next_page-1);

        /* Add the region to the new_areas if requested. */
        if (BOXED_PAGE_FLAG & page_type_flag)
            add_new_area(first_page,orig_first_page_bytes_used, region_size);

    } else if (!orig_first_page_bytes_used) {
        /* The first page is completely unused. Unallocate it */
        reset_page_flags(first_page);
    }

    /* Unallocate any unused pages. */
    while (next_page <= alloc_region->last_page) {
        gc_assert(page_bytes_used(next_page) == 0);
        reset_page_flags(next_page);
        next_page++;
    }
    ret = thread_mutex_unlock(&free_pages_lock);
    gc_assert(ret == 0);

    /* alloc_region is per-thread, we're ok to do this unlocked */
    gc_set_region_empty(alloc_region);
}

/* Allocate a possibly large object. */
void *
gc_alloc_large(sword_t nbytes, int page_type_flag, struct alloc_region *alloc_region)
{
    page_index_t first_page, last_page;
    int ret;

    ret = thread_mutex_lock(&free_pages_lock);
    gc_assert(ret == 0);

    first_page = alloc_start_page(page_type_flag, 1);
    // FIXME: really we want to try looking for space following the highest of
    // the last page of all other small object regions. That's impossible - there's
    // not enough information. At best we can skip some work in only the case where
    // the supplied region was the one most recently created. To do this right
    // would entail a malloc-like allocator at the page granularity.
    if (first_page <= alloc_region->last_page) {
        first_page = alloc_region->last_page+1;
    }

    last_page = gc_find_freeish_pages(&first_page, nbytes,
                                      SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG | page_type_flag,
                                      gc_alloc_generation);

    // FIXME: Should this be 1+last_page ?
    // (Doesn't matter too much since it'll be skipped on restart if unusable)
    set_alloc_start_page(page_type_flag, 1, last_page);

    /* Set up the pages. */
    page_index_t page;
    for (page = first_page; page <= last_page; ++page) {
        /* Large objects don't share pages with other objects. */
        gc_assert(page_bytes_used(page) == 0);
        page_table[page].type = SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG | page_type_flag;
        page_table[page].gen = gc_alloc_generation;
    }
    // Store a filler so that a linear heap walk does not try to examine
    // these pages cons-by-cons (or whatever they happen to look like).
    // A concurrent walk would probably crash anyway, and most certainly
    // will if it uses the page tables while this allocation is partway
    // through assigning bytes_used per page.
    // The fix for that is clear: MAP-OBJECTS-IN-RANGE should acquire
    // free_pages_lock when computing the extent of a contiguous block.
    // Anyway it's best if the new page resembles a valid object ASAP.
    uword_t nwords = nbytes >> WORD_SHIFT;
    lispobj* addr = (lispobj*)page_address(first_page);
    *addr = (nwords - 1) << N_WIDETAG_BITS | FILLER_WIDETAG;

    os_vm_size_t scan_start_offset = 0;
    for (page = first_page; page < last_page; ++page) {
        set_page_scan_start_offset(page, scan_start_offset);
        set_page_bytes_used(page, GENCGC_CARD_BYTES);
        scan_start_offset += GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
    }
    page_bytes_t final_bytes_used = nbytes - scan_start_offset;
    gc_dcheck((nbytes % GENCGC_CARD_BYTES ? nbytes % GENCGC_CARD_BYTES
               : GENCGC_CARD_BYTES) == final_bytes_used);
    set_page_scan_start_offset(last_page, scan_start_offset);
    set_page_bytes_used(last_page, final_bytes_used);
    bytes_allocated += nbytes;
    generations[gc_alloc_generation].bytes_allocated += nbytes;

    ret = thread_mutex_unlock(&free_pages_lock);
    gc_assert(ret == 0);

    /* Add the region to the new_areas if requested. */
    if (BOXED_PAGE_FLAG & page_type_flag)
        add_new_area(first_page, 0, nbytes);

    zero_dirty_pages(first_page, last_page, page_type_flag);
    // page may have not needed zeroing, but first word was stored,
    // turning the putative object temporarily into a page filler object.
    // Now turn it back into free space.
    *addr = 0;

    return addr;
}

void
gc_heap_exhausted_error_or_lose (sword_t available, sword_t requested)
{
    struct thread *thread = arch_os_get_current_thread();
    /* Write basic information before doing anything else: if we don't
     * call to lisp this is a must, and even if we do there is always
     * the danger that we bounce back here before the error has been
     * handled, or indeed even printed.
     */
    report_heap_exhaustion(available, requested, thread);
    if (gc_active_p || (available == 0)) {
        /* If we are in GC, or totally out of memory there is no way
         * to sanely transfer control to the lisp-side of things.
         */
        lose("Heap exhausted, game over.");
    }
    else {
        /* FIXME: assert free_pages_lock held */
        (void)thread_mutex_unlock(&free_pages_lock);
#if !(defined(LISP_FEATURE_WIN32) && defined(LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD))
        gc_assert(get_pseudo_atomic_atomic(thread));
        clear_pseudo_atomic_atomic(thread);
        if (get_pseudo_atomic_interrupted(thread))
            do_pending_interrupt();
#endif
        /* Another issue is that signalling HEAP-EXHAUSTED error leads
         * to running user code at arbitrary places, even in a
         * WITHOUT-INTERRUPTS which may lead to a deadlock without
         * running out of the heap. So at this point all bets are
         * off. */
        if (read_TLS(INTERRUPTS_ENABLED,thread) == NIL)
            corruption_warning_and_maybe_lose
                ("Signalling HEAP-EXHAUSTED in a WITHOUT-INTERRUPTS.");
        /* available and requested should be double word aligned, thus
           they can passed as fixnums and shifted later. */
        funcall2(StaticSymbolFunction(HEAP_EXHAUSTED_ERROR), available, requested);
        lose("HEAP-EXHAUSTED-ERROR fell through");
    }
}

/* Test whether page 'index' can continue a non-large-object region
 * having specified 'gen' and 'allocated' values. */
static inline boolean
page_extensible_p(page_index_t index, generation_index_t gen, int allocated) {
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_BIG_ENDIAN /* TODO: implement the simpler test */
    /* Counterintuitively, gcc prefers to see sequential tests of the bitfields,
     * versus one test "!(p.write_protected | p.pinned)".
     * When expressed as separate tests, it figures out that this can be optimized
     * as an AND. On the other hand, by attempting to *force* it to do that,
     * it shifts each field to the right to line them all up at bit index 0 to
     * test that 1 bit, which is a literal rendering of the user-written code.
     */
    boolean result =
           page_table[index].type == allocated
        && page_table[index].gen == gen
        && !page_table[index].write_protected
        && !page_table[index].pinned;
    return result;
#else
    /* Test all 4 conditions above as a single comparison against a mask.
     * (The C compiler doesn't understand how to do that)
     * Any bit that has a 1 in this mask must match the desired input.
     * Lisp allocates to generation 0 which is never write-protected, so both
     * WP bits should be zero. Newspace is not write-protected during GC,
     * however in the case of GC with promotion (raise=1), there may be a page
     * in the 'to' generation that is currently un-write-protected but with
     * write_protected_cleared flag = 1 because it was at some point WP'ed.
     * Those pages are usable, so we do have to mask out the 'cleared' bit.
     *
     *      pin -\   /--- WP
     *            v v
     * #b11111111_10111111
     *             ^ ^^^^^ -- type
     *     WP-clr /
     *
     * The flags reside at 1 byte prior to 'gen' in the page structure.
     */
    return (*(int16_t*)(&page_table[index].gen-1) & 0xFFBF) == ((gen<<8)|allocated);
#endif
}

/* Search for at least nbytes of space, possibly picking up any
 * remaining space on the tail of a page that was not fully used.
 *
 * The found space is guaranteed to be page-aligned if the SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG
 * bit is set in page_type_flag.
 */
page_index_t
gc_find_freeish_pages(page_index_t *restart_page_ptr, sword_t nbytes,
                      int page_type_flag, generation_index_t gen)
{
    page_index_t most_bytes_found_from = 0, most_bytes_found_to = 0;
    page_index_t first_page, last_page, restart_page = *restart_page_ptr;
    sword_t nbytes_goal = nbytes;
    sword_t bytes_found = 0;
    sword_t most_bytes_found = 0;
    int multi_object = !(page_type_flag & SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG);
    /* FIXME: assert(free_pages_lock is held); */

    if (multi_object) {
        if (nbytes_goal < (sword_t)gencgc_alloc_granularity)
            nbytes_goal = gencgc_alloc_granularity;
#if !defined(LISP_FEATURE_64_BIT)
        // Increase the region size to avoid excessive fragmentation
        if (page_type_flag == CODE_PAGE_TYPE && nbytes_goal < 65536)
            nbytes_goal = 65536;
#endif
    }
    page_type_flag &= ~SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG;

    gc_assert(nbytes>=0);
    first_page = restart_page;
    while (first_page < page_table_pages) {
        bytes_found = 0;
        if (page_free_p(first_page)) {
            gc_dcheck(!page_bytes_used(first_page));
            bytes_found = GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
        } else if (multi_object &&
                   // Never return a range starting with a 100% full page
                   (bytes_found = GENCGC_CARD_BYTES
                    - page_bytes_used(first_page)) > 0 &&
                   // "extensible" means all PTE fields are compatible
                   page_extensible_p(first_page, gen, page_type_flag)) {
            // XXX: Prefer to start non-code on new pages.
            //      This is temporary until scavenging of small-object pages
            //      is made a little more intelligent (work in progress).
            if (bytes_found < nbytes && page_type_flag != CODE_PAGE_TYPE) {
                if (bytes_found > most_bytes_found)
                    most_bytes_found = bytes_found;
                first_page++;
                continue;
            }
        } else {
            first_page++;
            continue;
        }

        gc_dcheck(!page_table[first_page].write_protected);
        /* page_free_p() can legally be used at index 'page_table_pages'
         * because the array dimension is 1+page_table_pages */
        for (last_page = first_page+1;
             bytes_found < nbytes_goal &&
               page_free_p(last_page) && last_page < page_table_pages;
             last_page++) {
            /* page_free_p() implies 0 bytes used, thus GENCGC_CARD_BYTES available.
             * It also implies !write_protected, and if the OS's conception were
             * otherwise, lossage would routinely occur in the fault handler) */
            bytes_found += GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
            gc_dcheck(0 == page_bytes_used(last_page));
            gc_dcheck(!page_table[last_page].write_protected);
        }

        if (bytes_found > most_bytes_found) {
            most_bytes_found = bytes_found;
            most_bytes_found_from = first_page;
            most_bytes_found_to = last_page;
        }
        if (bytes_found >= nbytes_goal)
            break;

        first_page = last_page;
    }

    bytes_found = most_bytes_found;
    restart_page = first_page + 1;

    /* Check for a failure */
    if (bytes_found < nbytes) {
        gc_assert(restart_page >= page_table_pages);
        gc_heap_exhausted_error_or_lose(most_bytes_found, nbytes);
    }

    gc_assert(most_bytes_found_to);
    // most_bytes_found_to is the upper exclusive bound on the found range.
    // next_free_page is the high water mark of most_bytes_found_to.
    if (most_bytes_found_to > next_free_page) {
        next_free_page = most_bytes_found_to;
        set_alloc_pointer((lispobj)(page_address(next_free_page)));
    }
    *restart_page_ptr = most_bytes_found_from;
    return most_bytes_found_to-1;
}

/* Allocate bytes.  All the rest of the special-purpose allocation
 * functions will eventually call this.
 * This entry point is only for use within the GC itself.
 * The Lisp region overflow handler either directly calls gc_alloc_large
 * or closes and opens a region if the allocation is small */
void *
gc_alloc_with_region(struct alloc_region *region, sword_t nbytes, int page_type_flag)
{
    if (nbytes>=LARGE_OBJECT_SIZE) {
        /* If this is a normal GC - as opposed to "final" GC just prior to saving
         * a core, then we should never copy a large object (not that that's the best
         * strategy always, because it entirely precludes defragmenting those objects).
         * But unfortunately we can't assert that only small objects are seen here,
         * because genesis does not use large-object pages. So cold-init could fail,
         * depending on whether objects in the cold core are sufficiently large that
         * they ought to have gone on large object pages if they could have. */
        return gc_alloc_large(nbytes, page_type_flag, region);
    }

    void *new_obj = region->free_pointer;
    void *new_free_pointer = (char*)new_obj + nbytes;
    /* Check whether there is room in the current alloc region. */
    if (new_free_pointer <= region->end_addr) {
        /* If so then allocate from the current alloc region. */
        region->free_pointer = new_free_pointer;
        return new_obj;
    }
    /* Else not enough free space in the current region: retry with a
     * new region. */
    ensure_region_closed(region, page_type_flag);
    gc_alloc_new_region(nbytes, page_type_flag, region);
    new_obj = region->free_pointer;
    new_free_pointer = (char*)new_obj + nbytes;
    gc_assert(new_free_pointer <= region->end_addr);
    region->free_pointer = new_free_pointer;
    return new_obj;
}

/* Free any trailing pages of the object starting at 'first_page'
 * that are currently unused due to object shrinkage.
 * Possibly assign different 'gen' and 'allocated' values.
 *
 * maybe_adjust_large_object() specifies 'from_space' for 'new_gen'
 * and copy_large_object() specifies 'new_space'
 */

static uword_t adjust_obj_ptes(page_index_t first_page,
                               sword_t nwords,
                               generation_index_t new_gen,
                               int new_allocated)
{
    int old_allocated = page_table[first_page].type;
    sword_t remaining_bytes = nwords * N_WORD_BYTES;
    page_index_t n_full_pages = nwords / (GENCGC_CARD_BYTES / N_WORD_BYTES);
    page_bytes_t excess = remaining_bytes & (GENCGC_CARD_BYTES - 1);
    // page number of ending page of this object at its new size
    page_index_t final_page = first_page + (n_full_pages - 1) + (excess != 0);

    /* Decide whether there is anything to do by checking whether:
     *  (1) the page at n_full_pages-1 beyond the first is fully used,
     *  (2) the next fractional page, if any, has correct usage, and
     *  (3) the page after that is not part of this object.
     * If all those conditions are met, this is the easy case,
     * though we may still have to change the generation and/or page type. */
    if ((!n_full_pages || page_bytes_used(first_page+(n_full_pages-1))
                          == GENCGC_CARD_BYTES) &&
        (!excess || page_bytes_used(final_page) == excess) &&
        page_starts_contiguous_block_p(1+final_page)) {
        /* The 'if' below has an 'else' which subsumes the 'then' in generality.
         * Why? Because usually we only need perform one assignment.
         * Moreover, after a further change which makes us not look at the 'gen'
         * of the *interior* of a page-spanning object, then the fast case
         * reduces to "page_table[first_page].gen = new_gen". And we're done.
         * At present, some logic assumes that every page's gen was updated */
        page_index_t page;
        if (old_allocated == new_allocated) { // Almost always true,
            // except when bignums or specialized arrays change from thread-local
            // (boxed) allocation to unboxed, for downstream efficiency.
            for (page = first_page; page <= final_page; ++page)
                page_table[page].gen = new_gen;
        } else {
            for (page = first_page; page <= final_page; ++page) {
                page_table[page].type = new_allocated;
                page_table[page].gen = new_gen;
            }
        }
        return 0;
    }

    /* The assignments to the page table here affect only one object
     * since its pages can't be shared with other objects */
#define CHECK_AND_SET_PTE_FIELDS() \
        gc_assert(page_table[page].type == old_allocated); \
        gc_assert(page_table[page].gen == from_space); \
        gc_assert(page_scan_start_offset(page) == npage_bytes(page-first_page)); \
        gc_assert(!page_table[page].write_protected); \
        page_table[page].gen = new_gen; \
        page_table[page].type = new_allocated

    gc_assert(page_starts_contiguous_block_p(first_page));
    page_index_t page = first_page;
    while (remaining_bytes > (sword_t)GENCGC_CARD_BYTES) {
        gc_assert(page_bytes_used(page) == GENCGC_CARD_BYTES);
        CHECK_AND_SET_PTE_FIELDS();
        remaining_bytes -= GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
        page++;
    }

    /* Now at most one page of data in use by the object remains,
     * but there may be more unused pages beyond which will be freed. */

    /* This page must have at least as many bytes in use as expected */
    gc_assert((sword_t)page_bytes_used(page) >= remaining_bytes);
    CHECK_AND_SET_PTE_FIELDS();

    /* Adjust the bytes_used. */
    page_bytes_t prev_bytes_used = page_bytes_used(page);
    set_page_bytes_used(page, remaining_bytes);

    uword_t bytes_freed = prev_bytes_used - remaining_bytes;

    /* Free unused pages that were originally allocated to this object. */
    page++;
    while (prev_bytes_used == GENCGC_CARD_BYTES &&
           page_table[page].gen == from_space &&
           page_table[page].type == old_allocated &&
           page_scan_start_offset(page) == npage_bytes(page - first_page)) {
        // These pages are part of oldspace, which was un-write-protected.
        gc_assert(!page_table[page].write_protected);

        /* Zeroing must have been done before shrinking the object.
         * (It is strictly necessary for correctness with objects other
         * than simple-vector, but pragmatically it reduces accidental
         * conservativism when done for simple-vectors as well) */
#ifdef DEBUG
        { lispobj* words = (lispobj*)page_address(page);
          int i;
          for(i=0; i<(int)(GENCGC_CARD_BYTES/N_WORD_BYTES); ++i)
              if (words[i])
                lose("non-zeroed trailer of shrunken object @ %p",
                     page_address(first_page));
        }
#endif
        /* It checks out OK, free the page. */
        prev_bytes_used = page_bytes_used(page);
        page_table[page].bytes_used_ = 0; // also clears need-to-zero bit
        reset_page_flags(page);
        bytes_freed += prev_bytes_used;
        page++;
    }

    if ((bytes_freed > 0) && gencgc_verbose) {
        FSHOW((stderr,
               "/adjust_obj_ptes() freed %"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT"\n",
               bytes_freed));
    }
    // If this freed nothing, it ought to have gone through the fast path.
    gc_assert(bytes_freed != 0);
    return bytes_freed;
}

/* "Copy" a large object. If the object is on large object pages,
 * and satisifies the condition to remain where it is,
 * it is simply promoted, else it is copied.
 * To stay on large-object pages, the object must either be at least
 * LARGE_OBJECT_SIZE, or must waste fewer than about 1% of the space
 * on its allocated pages. Using 32k pages as a reference point:
 *   3 pages - ok if size >= 97552
 *   2 pages - ...   size >= 65040
 *   1 page  - ...   size >= 32528
 *
 * Bignums and vectors may have shrunk. If the object is not copied,
 * the slack needs to be reclaimed, and the page_tables corrected.
 *
 * Code objects can't shrink, but it's not worth adding an extra test
 * for large code just to avoid the loop that performs adjustment, so
 * go through the adjustment motions even though nothing happens.
 *
 */
lispobj
copy_large_object(lispobj object, sword_t nwords, int page_type_flag)
{
    page_index_t first_page;

    CHECK_COPY_PRECONDITIONS(object, nwords);

    if ((nwords > 1024*1024) && gencgc_verbose) {
        FSHOW((stderr, "/copy_large_object: %"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT"\n", nwords));
    }

    /* Check whether it's a large object. */
    first_page = find_page_index((void *)object);
    gc_assert(first_page >= 0);

    os_vm_size_t nbytes = nwords * N_WORD_BYTES;
    os_vm_size_t rounded = ALIGN_UP(nbytes, GENCGC_CARD_BYTES);
    if (page_single_obj_p(first_page) &&
        (nbytes >= LARGE_OBJECT_SIZE || (rounded - nbytes < rounded / 128))) {

        os_vm_size_t bytes_freed =
          adjust_obj_ptes(first_page, nwords, new_space,
                          SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG | page_type_flag);

        generations[from_space].bytes_allocated -= (bytes_freed + nbytes);
        generations[new_space].bytes_allocated += nbytes;
        bytes_allocated -= bytes_freed;

        /* Add the region to the new_areas if requested. */
        if (page_type_flag & BOXED_PAGE_FLAG)
            add_new_area(first_page, 0, nbytes);

        return object;
    }
    return gc_general_copy_object(object, nwords, page_type_flag);
}

/* to copy unboxed objects */
lispobj
copy_unboxed_object(lispobj object, sword_t nwords)
{
    return gc_general_copy_object(object, nwords, UNBOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
}

/*
 * weak pointers
 */

sword_t
scav_weak_pointer(lispobj *where, lispobj __attribute__((unused)) object)
{
    struct weak_pointer * wp = (struct weak_pointer*)where;

    if (!wp->next && weak_pointer_breakable_p(wp)) {
        /* All weak pointers refer to objects at least as old as themselves,
         * because there is no slot setter for WEAK-POINTER-VALUE.
         * (i.e. You can't reference an object that didn't already exist,
         * assuming that users don't stuff a new value in via low-level hacks)
         * A weak pointer is breakable only if it points to an object in the
         * condemned generation, which must be as young as, or younger than
         * the weak pointer itself. Per the initial claim, it can't be younger.
         * So it must be in the same generation. Therefore, if the pointee
         * is condemned, the pointer itself must be condemned. Hence it must
         * not be on a write-protected page. Assert this, to be sure.
         * (This assertion is compiled out in a normal build,
         * so even if incorrect, it should be relatively harmless)
         */
        gc_dcheck(!page_table[find_page_index(wp)].write_protected);
        add_to_weak_pointer_chain(wp);
    }

    /* Do not let GC scavenge the value slot of the weak pointer.
     * (That is why it is a weak pointer.) */

    return WEAK_POINTER_NWORDS;
}

/* a faster version for searching the dynamic space. This will work even
 * if the object is in a current allocation region. */
lispobj *
search_dynamic_space(void *pointer)
{
    page_index_t page_index = find_page_index(pointer);
    lispobj *start;

    /* The address may be invalid, so do some checks. */
    if ((page_index == -1) || page_free_p(page_index))
        return NULL;
    start = (lispobj *)page_scan_start(page_index);
    return gc_search_space(start, pointer);
}

/* Return true if 'addr' has a lowtag and widetag that correspond,
 * given that the words at 'addr' are within range for an allocated page.
 * 'addr' could be a pointer to random data, and this check is merely
 * a heuristic. False positives are possible. */
static inline boolean plausible_tag_p(lispobj addr)
{
    if (listp(addr))
        return is_cons_half(CONS(addr)->car)
            && is_cons_half(CONS(addr)->cdr);
    unsigned char widetag = widetag_of(native_pointer(addr));
    return other_immediate_lowtag_p(widetag)
        && lowtag_of(addr) == LOWTAG_FOR_WIDETAG(widetag);
}

#if !GENCGC_IS_PRECISE
// Return the starting address of the object containing 'addr'
// if and only if the object is one which would be evacuated from 'from_space'
// were it allowed to be either discarded as garbage or moved.
// 'addr_page_index' is the page containing 'addr' and must not be -1.
// Return 0 if there is no such object - that is, if addr is past the
// end of the used bytes, or its pages are not in 'from_space' etc.
static lispobj*
conservative_root_p(lispobj addr, page_index_t addr_page_index)
{
    /* quick check 1: Address is quite likely to have been invalid. */
    struct page* page = &page_table[addr_page_index];
    boolean enforce_lowtag = (page->type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) != CODE_PAGE_TYPE;

    if ((addr & (GENCGC_CARD_BYTES - 1)) >= page_bytes_used(addr_page_index) ||
        (!is_lisp_pointer(addr) && enforce_lowtag) ||
        (compacting_p() && (page->gen != from_space ||
                            (page->pinned && (page->type & SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG)))))
        return 0;
    gc_assert(!(page->type & OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG));

    /* quick check 2: Unless the page can hold code, the pointer's lowtag must
     * correspond to the widetag of the object. The object header can safely
     * be read even if it turns out that the pointer is not valid,
     * because the pointer was in bounds for the page.
     * Note that this can falsely pass if looking at the interior of an unboxed
     * array that masquerades as a Lisp object header by pure luck.
     * But if this doesn't pass, there's no point in proceeding to the
     * definitive test which involves searching for the containing object. */

    if (enforce_lowtag) {
        if (!plausible_tag_p(addr)) return 0;
        /* Don't gc_search_space() more than once for any object.
         * Doesn't apply to code since the base address is unknown */
        /* FIXME: for non-compacting GC, either don't do this call at all
         * - because it always returns 0 - or actually insert objects
         * into the hashtable so that it returns a valid answer */
        if (pinned_p(addr, addr_page_index)) return 0;
    }

    /* Filter out anything which can't be a pointer to a Lisp object
     * (or, as a special case which also requires pinning, a return
     * address referring to something in a code component). This is
     * expensive but important, since it vastly reduces the
     * probability that random garbage will be bogusly interpreted as
     * a pointer which prevents a page from moving. */
    lispobj* object_start = search_dynamic_space((void*)addr);
    if (!object_start) return 0;

    /* If the containing object is a code object and 'addr' points
     * anywhere beyond the boxed words,
     * presume it to be a valid unboxed return address. */
    if (instruction_ptr_p((void*)addr, object_start))
        return object_start;

    // FIXME: I think there is a window of GC vulnerability regarding FINs
    // and FDEFNs containing executable bytes. In either case if the only pointer
    // to such an object is the program counter, the object could be considered
    // garbage because there is no _tagged_ pointer to it.
    // This is an almost impossible situation to arise, but seems worth some study.

    /* Large object pages only contain ONE object, and it will never
     * be a CONS.  However, arrays and bignums can be allocated larger
     * than necessary and then shrunk to fit, leaving what look like
     * (0 . 0) CONSes at the end.  These appear valid to
     * properly_tagged_descriptor_p(), so pick them off here. */
    if ((listp(addr) && page_single_obj_p(addr_page_index))
        || !properly_tagged_descriptor_p((void*)addr, object_start))
        return 0;

    return object_start;
}
#elif defined LISP_FEATURE_PPC64
static inline int untagged_fdefn_p(lispobj addr) {
    return ((addr & LOWTAG_MASK) == 0) && widetag_of((lispobj*)addr) == FDEFN_WIDETAG;
}
/* "Less conservative" than above - only consider code pointers as ambiguous
 * roots, not all pointers.  Eventually every architecture could use this
 * because life is so much easier when on-stack code does not move */
static lispobj*
conservative_root_p(lispobj addr, page_index_t addr_page_index)
{
    struct page* page = &page_table[addr_page_index];
    // We allow ambiguous pointers to code and untagged fdefn pointers.
    if (!((page->type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) == CODE_PAGE_TYPE
          || untagged_fdefn_p(addr)))
        return 0;

    // quick check 1: within from_space and within page usage
    if ((addr & (GENCGC_CARD_BYTES - 1)) >= page_bytes_used(addr_page_index) ||
        (compacting_p() && (page->gen != from_space ||
                            (page->pinned && (page->type & SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG)))))
        return 0;
    gc_assert(!(page->type & OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG));

    // Find the containing object, if any
    lispobj* object_start = search_dynamic_space((void*)addr);
    if (!object_start) return 0;

    /* If 'addr' points to object_start exactly or anywhere in
     * the boxed words, then it points to the object */
    if ((lispobj*)addr == object_start || instruction_ptr_p((void*)addr, object_start))
        return object_start;
    return 0;
}
#endif

/* Adjust large bignum and vector objects. This will adjust the
 * allocated region if the size has shrunk, and change boxed pages
 * into unboxed pages. The pages are not promoted here, and the
 * object is not added to the new_regions; this is really
 * only designed to be called from preserve_pointer(). Shouldn't fail
 * if this is missed, just may delay the moving of objects to unboxed
 * pages, and the freeing of pages. */
static void
maybe_adjust_large_object(page_index_t first_page, sword_t nwords)
{
    lispobj* where = (lispobj*)page_address(first_page);
    int page_type_flag;

    /* Check whether it's a vector or bignum object. */
    lispobj widetag = widetag_of(where);
    if (widetag == SIMPLE_VECTOR_WIDETAG)
        page_type_flag = SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG | BOXED_PAGE_FLAG;
    else if (specialized_vector_widetag_p(widetag) || widetag == BIGNUM_WIDETAG)
        page_type_flag = SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG | UNBOXED_PAGE_FLAG;
    else
        return;

    os_vm_size_t bytes_freed =
      adjust_obj_ptes(first_page, nwords, from_space, page_type_flag);
    generations[from_space].bytes_allocated -= bytes_freed;
    bytes_allocated -= bytes_freed;
}

/* After scavenging of the roots is done, we go back to the pinned objects
 * and look within them for pointers. While heap_scavenge() could certainly
 * do this, it would potentially lead to extra work, since we can't know
 * whether any given object has been examined at least once, since there is
 * no telltale forwarding-pointer. The easiest thing to do is defer all
 * pinned objects to a subsequent pass, as is done here.
 */
static void
scavenge_pinned_ranges()
{
    int i;
    lispobj key;
    for_each_hopscotch_key(i, key, pinned_objects) {
        gc_assert(is_lisp_pointer(key));
        if (listp(key)) // don't need is_header() since we know the lowtag
            scavenge((lispobj*)CONS(key), 2);
        else {
            lispobj* obj = native_pointer(key);
            lispobj header = *obj;
            int widetag = header_widetag(header);
            // Never invoke scavenger on a simple-fun, just code components.
            if (widetag != SIMPLE_FUN_WIDETAG) scavtab[widetag](obj, header);
        }
    }
}

/* visit_freed_objects() was designed to support post-GC actions such as
 * recycling of unused symbol TLS indices. However, I could not make this work
 * as claimed at the time that it gets called, so at best this is reserved
 * for debugging, and only when you can tolerate some inaccuracy.
 *
 * The problem is that oldspace pages which were not pinned should eventually
 * be scanned en masse using contiguous blocks as large as possible without
 * encroaching on pinned pages. But we need to visit the dead objects on partially
 * pinned pages prior to turning those objects into page-filling objects.
 * Based on a real-life example, finding a correct approach is difficult.
 * Consider three pages all having the same scan_start of 0x1008e78000,
 * with the final page and only the final containing a pinned object:
 *
 *   start: 0x1008e78000       0x1008e80000       0x1008e88000
 *                                                 pin: 0x1008e8bec0
 *          ^------------------+------------------|
 * There is a page-spanning (SIMPLE-ARRAY (UNSIGNED-BYTE 64) 8192)
 * from 0x1008e78000 to 0x1008E88010 (exclusive). The penultimate word
 * of that array appears to be a valid widetag:
 *
 *   0x1008e88000: 0x0000000000001df1
 *   0x1008e88008: 0x0000000000000000
 * followed by:
 *   0x1008e88010: 0x0000001006c798c7  CONS
 *   0x1008e88018: 0x0000001008e88447
 *   0x1008e88020: 0x00000000000000ad  (SIMPLE-ARRAY (UNSIGNED-BYTE 64) 32)
 *   0x1008e88028: 0x0000000000000040
 *   ... pretty much anything in here ...
 *   0x1008e8bec0:                     any valid pinned object
 *
 * Page wiping ignores the pages based at 0x1008e78000 and 0x1008e80000
 * and it is only concerned with the range from 0x1008e88000..0x1008e8bec0
 * which becomes filler. The question is how to traverse objects in the filled
 * range. You can't start scanning dead objects at the page base address
 * of the final page because that would parse these objects as:
 *
 *   0x1008e88000: 0x0000000000001df1 (complex-vector-nil) ; 30 words
 *   0x1008e880f0: any random garbage
 *
 * But if you scan from the correct scan start of 0x1008e78000 then how do you
 * know to skip that page later (in free_oldspace), as it is entirely in oldspace,
 * but partially visited already? This what in malloc/free terms would be
 * a "double free", and there is no obvious solution to that.
 */
void visit_freed_objects(char __attribute__((unused)) *start,
                         sword_t __attribute__((unused)) nbytes)
{
#ifdef TRAVERSE_FREED_OBJECTS
    /* At this point we could attempt to recycle unused TLS indices
     * as follows: For each now-garbage symbol that had a nonzero index,
     * return that index to a "free TLS index" pool, perhaps a linked list
     * or bitmap. Then either always try the free pool first (for better
     * locality) or if ALLOC-TLS-INDEX detects exhaustion (for speed). */
    lispobj* where = (lispobj*)start;
    lispobj* end = (lispobj*)(start + nbytes);
    while (where < end) {
        lispobj word = *where;
        if (forwarding_pointer_p(where)) { // live oject
            lispobj* fwd_where = native_pointer(forwarding_pointer_value(where));
            fprintf(stderr, "%p: -> %p\n", where, fwd_where);
            where += OBJECT_SIZE(*fwd_where, fwd_where);
        } else { // dead object
            fprintf(stderr, "%p: %"OBJ_FMTX" %"OBJ_FMTX"\n", where, where[0], where[1]);
            if (is_header(word)) {
                // Do something interesting
                where += sizetab[header_widetag(word)](where);
            } else {
                /* Can't do much useful with conses because often we can't distinguish
                 * filler from data. visit_freed_objects is called on ranges of pages
                 * without regard to whether each intervening page was completely full.
                 * (This is not usually the way, but freeing of pages is slightly
                 * imprecise in that regard).
                 * And it's probably broken, since we leave detritus on code pages */
                where += 2;
            }
        }
    }
#endif
}

void deposit_filler(uword_t addr, sword_t nbytes) {
    gc_assert(nbytes >= 0);
    if (nbytes > 0) {
        sword_t nwords = nbytes >> WORD_SHIFT;
        visit_freed_objects((char*)addr, nbytes);
        gc_assert((nwords - 1) <= 0x7FFFFF);
        *(lispobj*)addr = (nwords - 1) << N_WIDETAG_BITS | FILLER_WIDETAG;
    }
}

/* Deposit filler objects on small object pinned pages.
 * Also ensure that no scan_start_offset points to a page in
 * oldspace that will be freed.
 */
static void
wipe_nonpinned_words()
{
    void gc_heapsort_uwords(uword_t*, int);

    if (!pinned_objects.count)
        return;

    // Loop over the keys in pinned_objects and pack them densely into
    // the same array - pinned_objects.keys[] - but skip any simple-funs.
    // Admittedly this is abstraction breakage.
    int limit = hopscotch_max_key_index(pinned_objects);
    int n_pins = 0, i;
    for (i = 0; i <= limit; ++i) {
        lispobj key = pinned_objects.keys[i];
        if (key) {
            lispobj* obj = native_pointer(key);
            // No need to check for is_cons_half() - it will be false
            // on a simple-fun header, and that's the correct answer.
            if (widetag_of(obj) != SIMPLE_FUN_WIDETAG)
                pinned_objects.keys[n_pins++] = (uword_t)obj;
        }
    }
    // Don't touch pinned_objects.count in case the reset function uses it
    // to decide how to resize for next use (which it doesn't, but could).
    gc_n_stack_pins = n_pins;
    // Order by ascending address, stopping short of the sentinel.
    gc_heapsort_uwords(pinned_objects.keys, n_pins);
#if 0
    fprintf(stderr, "Sorted pin list (%d):\n", n_pins);
    for (i = 0; i < n_pins; ++i) {
      lispobj* obj = (lispobj*)pinned_objects.keys[i];
      lispobj word = *obj;
      int widetag = header_widetag(word);
      if (is_header(word))
          fprintf(stderr, "%p: %d words (%s)\n", obj,
                  (int)sizetab[widetag](obj), widetag_names[widetag>>2]);
      else
          fprintf(stderr, "%p: (cons)\n", obj);
    }
#endif

#define page_base(x) ALIGN_DOWN(x, GENCGC_CARD_BYTES)
// This macro asserts that space accounting happens exactly
// once per affected page (a page with any pins, no matter how many)
#define adjust_gen_usage(i) \
            gc_assert(page_table[i].gen == from_space); \
            bytes_moved += page_bytes_used(i); \
            page_table[i].gen = new_space

    // Store a sentinel at the end. Even if n_pins = table capacity (unlikely),
    // it is safe to write one more word, because the hops[] array immediately
    // follows the keys[] array in memory.  At worst, 2 elements of hops[]
    // are clobbered, which is irrelevant since the table has already been
    // rendered unusable by stealing its key array for a different purpose.
    pinned_objects.keys[n_pins] = ~(uword_t)0;

    // Each pinned object begets two ranges of bytes to be turned into filler:
    // - the range preceding it back to its page start or predecessor object
    // - the range after it, up to the lesser of page bytes used or successor object

    // Prime the loop
    uword_t fill_from = page_base(pinned_objects.keys[0]);
    os_vm_size_t bytes_moved = 0; // i.e. virtually moved

    for (i = 0; i < n_pins; ++i) {
        lispobj* obj = (lispobj*)pinned_objects.keys[i];
        page_index_t begin_page_index = find_page_index(obj);
        // Create a filler object occupying space from 'fill_from' up to but
        // excluding 'obj'. If obj directly abuts its predecessor then don't.
        deposit_filler(fill_from, (uword_t)obj - fill_from);
        if (fill_from == page_base((uword_t)obj)) {
            adjust_gen_usage(begin_page_index);
            // This pinned object started a new page of pins.
            // scan_start must not see any page prior to this page,
            // as those might be in oldspace and about to be marked free.
            set_page_scan_start_offset(begin_page_index, 0);
        }
        // If 'obj' spans pages, move its successive page(s) to newspace and
        // ensure that those pages' scan_starts point at the same address
        // that this page's scan start does, which could be this page or earlier.
        size_t nwords = OBJECT_SIZE(*obj, obj);
        uword_t obj_end = (uword_t)(obj + nwords); // non-inclusive address bound
        page_index_t end_page_index = find_page_index((char*)obj_end - 1); // inclusive bound

        if (end_page_index > begin_page_index) {
            char *scan_start = page_scan_start(begin_page_index);
            page_index_t index;
            for (index = begin_page_index + 1; index <= end_page_index; ++index) {
                set_page_scan_start_offset(index,
                                           addr_diff(page_address(index), scan_start));
                adjust_gen_usage(index);
            }
        }
        // Compute page base address of last page touched by this obj.
        uword_t obj_end_pageaddr = page_base(obj_end - 1);
        // See if there's another pinned object on this page.
        // There is always a next object, due to the sentinel.
        if (pinned_objects.keys[i+1] < obj_end_pageaddr + GENCGC_CARD_BYTES) {
            // Next object starts within the same page.
            fill_from = obj_end;
        } else {
            // Next pinned object does not start on the same page this obj ends on.
            // Any bytes following 'obj' up to its page end are garbage.
            uword_t page_end = obj_end_pageaddr + page_bytes_used(end_page_index);
            deposit_filler(obj_end, page_end - obj_end);
            fill_from = page_base(pinned_objects.keys[i+1]);
        }
    }
    generations[from_space].bytes_allocated -= bytes_moved;
    generations[new_space].bytes_allocated += bytes_moved;
#undef adjust_gen_usage
#undef page_base
}

/* Add 'object' to the hashtable, and if the object is a code component,
 * then also add all of the embedded simple-funs.
 * The rationale for the extra work on code components is that without it,
 * every test of pinned_p() on an object would have to check if the pointer
 * is to a simple-fun - entailing an extra read of the header - and mapping
 * to its code component if so.  Since more calls to pinned_p occur than to
 * pin_object, the extra burden should be on this function.
 * Experimentation bears out that this is the better technique.
 * Also, we wouldn't often expect code components in the collected generation
 * so the extra work here is quite minimal, even if it can generally add to
 * the number of keys in the hashtable.
 */
static void
pin_object(lispobj object)
{
    if (!compacting_p()) {
        gc_mark_obj(object);
        return;
    }

    lispobj* object_start = native_pointer(object);
    page_index_t first_page = find_page_index(object_start);
    if (!page_single_obj_p(first_page)
        && hopscotch_containsp(&pinned_objects, object))
        return;

    size_t nwords = OBJECT_SIZE(*object_start, object_start);
    page_index_t last_page = find_page_index(object_start + nwords - 1);
    page_index_t page;
    // It would be better if it were possible to touch only the PTE for the
    // first page of a large object instead of touching N page table entries.
    // I'm not sure how well the rest of GC would handle that.
    for (page = first_page; page <= last_page; ++page) {
        /* Oldspace pages were unprotected at start of GC.
         * Assert this here, because the previous logic used to,
         * and page protection bugs are scary */
        gc_assert(!page_table[page].write_protected);
        /* Mark the page as containing pinned objects. */
        page_table[page].pinned = 1;
    }

    if (page_single_obj_p(first_page)) {
        return maybe_adjust_large_object(first_page, nwords);
    }

    hopscotch_insert(&pinned_objects, object, 1);
    struct code* maybe_code = (struct code*)native_pointer(object);
    if (widetag_of(&maybe_code->header) == CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG) {
        // Avoid reading the code trailer word until the debug info is set.
        // Prior to that being set, the unboxed payload is full of random bytes,
        // but neither can here be references to any of its simple-funs from
        // other objects until the debug info is filled in.
        if (maybe_code->debug_info)
            for_each_simple_fun(i, fun, maybe_code, 0, {
                hopscotch_insert(&pinned_objects,
                                 make_lispobj(fun, FUN_POINTER_LOWTAG),
                                 1);
            })
    }

    if (lowtag_of(object) == INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG) {
        struct instance* instance = (struct instance*)(object - INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG);
        lispobj layout = instance_layout((lispobj*)instance);
        if (layout && lockfree_list_node_layout_p(LAYOUT(layout))) {
            // When pinning a logically deleted lockfree list node, always pin the
            // successor too, since the Lisp code will reconstruct the next node's tagged
            // pointer from the native pointer. Since we're still in the object pinning phase
            // of GC, layouts can't have been forwarded yet.
            // Note also that this 'pin' does not need to happen for mark-only GC.
            // The pin is from an address perspective, not a liveness perspective,
            // because the instance scavenger would correctly trace this reference.
            lispobj next = instance->slots[INSTANCE_DATA_START];
            // Be sure to ignore an uninitialized word containing 0.
            if (fixnump(next) && next && from_space_p(next | INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG))
                pin_object(next | INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG);
        }
    }
}

#if !GENCGC_IS_PRECISE || defined LISP_FEATURE_PPC64
/* Take a possible pointer to a Lisp object and mark its page in the
 * page_table so that it will not be relocated during a GC.
 *
 * This involves locating the page it points to, then backing up to
 * the start of its region, then marking all pages pinned from there
 * up to the first page that's not full or has a different generation
 *
 * It is assumed that all the pages' pin flags have been cleared at
 * the start of a GC.
 *
 * It is also assumed that the current gc_alloc() region has been
 * flushed and the tables updated. */

static boolean NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY
preserve_pointer(void *addr)
{
    page_index_t page = find_page_index(addr);
    if (page < 0) {
        // Though immobile_space_preserve_pointer accepts any pointer,
        // there's a benefit to testing immobile_space_p first
        // because it's inlined. Either is a no-op if no immobile space.
        if (immobile_space_p((lispobj)addr))
            return immobile_space_preserve_pointer(addr);
        return 0;
    }
    lispobj *object_start = conservative_root_p((lispobj)addr, page);
    if (object_start) pin_object(compute_lispobj(object_start));
    return object_start != 0;
}
#endif

/* Pin an unambiguous descriptor object which may or may not be a pointer.
 * Ignore objects with immediate lowtags */
static void __attribute__((unused)) pin_exact_root(lispobj obj)
{
    if (!is_lisp_pointer(obj)) return;
    page_index_t page = find_page_index((void*)obj);
    if (page < 0) return;

    /* If we're in precise gencgc (non-x86oid as of this writing) then
     * we are only called on valid object pointers in the first place,
     * so we just have to do a bounds-check against the heap, a
     * generation check, and the already-pinned check. */
    if (compacting_p() && (page_table[page].gen != from_space ||
                            (page_single_obj_p(page) &&
                             page_table[page].pinned)))
        return;
    lispobj *object_start = native_pointer(obj);
    switch (widetag_of(object_start)) {
    case SIMPLE_FUN_WIDETAG:
#ifdef RETURN_PC_WIDETAG
    case RETURN_PC_WIDETAG:
#endif
        object_start = fun_code_header(object_start);
    }
    pin_object(compute_lispobj(object_start));
}


#define IN_REGION_P(a,kind) (kind##_region.start_addr<=a && a<=kind##_region.free_pointer)
#define IN_BOXED_REGION_P(a) IN_REGION_P(a,boxed)||IN_REGION_P(a,code)

/* If the given page is not write-protected, then scan it for pointers
 * to younger generations or the top temp. generation, if no
 * suspicious pointers are found then the page is write-protected.
 *
 * Care is taken to check for pointers to any open allocation regions,
 * which by design contain younger objects.
 *
 * We return 1 if the page was write-protected, else 0.
 *
 * Note that because of the existence of some words which have fixnum lowtag
 * but are actually pointers, you might think it would be possible for this
 * function to go wrong, protecting a page that contains old->young pointers.
 * Indeed the edge cases are rare enough not to have manifested ever,
 * as far anyone knows.
 *
 * Suspect A is CLOSURE-FUN, which is a fixnum (on x86) which when treated
 * as a pointer indicates the entry point to call. Its function can never
 * be an object younger than itself. (An invariant of any immutable object)
 *
 * Suspect B is FDEFN-RAW-ADDRESS. This is a problem, but only under worst-case
 * assumptions. Previous remarks here mentioned pinning and/or absence of calls
 * to update_page_write_prot(). That explanation was flawed, as is almost
 * anything in GC comments mentioning the obsolete pinning code.
 * See 'doc/internals-notes/fdefn-gc-safety' for execution schedules
 * that lead to invariant loss.
 */
static int
update_page_write_prot(page_index_t page)
{
    generation_index_t gen = page_table[page].gen;
    sword_t j;
    int wp_it = 1;
    lispobj *page_addr = (lispobj*)page_address(page);
    sword_t num_words = page_bytes_used(page) / N_WORD_BYTES;

    /* Shouldn't be a free page. */
    gc_dcheck(!page_free_p(page)); // Implied by the next assertion
    gc_assert(page_bytes_used(page) != 0);

    if (!ENABLE_PAGE_PROTECTION) return 0;

    /* Skip if it's unboxed, already write-protected, or pinned */
    /* The 'pinned' check is sort of bogus but sort of necessary,
     * but doesn't completely fix the problem that it tries to, which is
     * passing a memory address to the OS for it to write into.
     * An object on a never-written protected page would still fail.
     * It's probably rare to pass boxed pages to the OS, but it could be
     * to read fixnums into a simple-vector.
     * If we had soft write protection (mark bits) instead of physical
     * protection, then we could/would protect pinned pages.
     * (See git rev 216e37a316) */
    if (page_table[page].write_protected || !page_boxed_p(page) ||
        page_table[page].pinned)
        return (0);

    /* Scan the page for pointers to younger generations or the
     * temp generation, which is numerically 7 but logically younger */

    /* This is conservative: any word satisfying is_lisp_pointer() is
     * assumed to be a pointer. To do otherwise would require a family
     * of scavenge-like functions. */
    for (j = 0; j < num_words; j++) {
        void *ptr;
        page_index_t index;
        lispobj __attribute__((unused)) header;

        lispobj word = page_addr[j];
        if (is_lisp_pointer(word))
            ptr = (void*)word;
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_COMPACT_INSTANCE_HEADER
        else if (lowtag_of(word>>32)==INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG &&
                 (header_widetag(word)==INSTANCE_WIDETAG||
                  header_widetag(word)==FUNCALLABLE_INSTANCE_WIDETAG)) {
            ptr = (void*)(word >> 32);
        }
#endif
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_UNTAGGED_FDEFNS
        else if (!(word & LOWTAG_MASK) && (find_page_index((void*)word) >= 0)
                 && widetag_of((lispobj*)word) == FDEFN_WIDETAG) {
            ptr = (void*)word;
        }
#endif
        else
            continue;

        /* Check that it's in the dynamic space */
        if ((index = find_page_index(ptr)) != -1) {
            int pointee_gen = page_table[index].gen;
            if (/* Does it point to a younger or the temp. generation? */
                (pointee_gen < gen || pointee_gen == SCRATCH_GENERATION) &&

                /* and an in-use part of the page? */
                (((lispobj)ptr & (GENCGC_CARD_BYTES-1)) < page_bytes_used(index) ||
                 ((page_table[index].type & OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG)
                  && (IN_BOXED_REGION_P(ptr) || IN_REGION_P(ptr,unboxed))))) {
                wp_it = 0;
                break;
            }
        }
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
        else if (immobile_space_p((lispobj)ptr) &&
                 other_immediate_lowtag_p(header = *native_pointer((lispobj)ptr))) {
            // This is *possibly* a pointer to an object in immobile space,
            // given that above two conditions were satisfied.
            // But unlike in the dynamic space case, we need to read a byte
            // from the object to determine its generation, which requires care.
            // Consider an unboxed word that looks like a pointer to a word that
            // looks like simple-fun-widetag. We can't naively back up to the
            // underlying code object since the alleged header might not be one.
            int pointee_gen = gen; // Make comparison fail if we fall through
            switch (header_widetag(header)) {
            case SIMPLE_FUN_WIDETAG:
                if (functionp((lispobj)ptr)) {
                    lispobj* code = fun_code_header(FUNCTION((lispobj)ptr));
                    // This is a heuristic, since we're not actually looking for
                    // an object boundary. Precise scanning of 'page' would obviate
                    // the guard conditions here.
                    if (immobile_space_p((lispobj)code)
                        && widetag_of(code) == CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG)
                        pointee_gen = immobile_obj_generation(code);
                }
                break;
            default:
                pointee_gen = immobile_obj_generation(native_pointer((lispobj)ptr));
            }
            // A bogus generation number implies a not-really-pointer,
            // but it won't cause misbehavior.
            if (pointee_gen < gen || pointee_gen == SCRATCH_GENERATION) {
                wp_it = 0;
                break;
            }
        }
#endif
    }

    if (wp_it == 1)
        protect_page(page_addr, page);

    return (wp_it);
}

/* Is this page holding a normal (non-weak, non-hashtable) large-object
 * simple-vector? */
static inline boolean large_simple_vector_p(page_index_t page) {
    if (!page_single_obj_p(page))
        return 0;
    lispobj header = *(lispobj *)page_address(page);
    // For hash-table vectors which are neither weak nor address-sensitive,
    // it certainly would be possible to treat the vector as an ordinary vector,
    // though we'd lose out on the optimization that scans only below the
    // high-water mark which is in general a good thing.  Perhaps if the
    // ratio of HWM to total size warrants it, we should prefer to use the
    // large_simple_vector optimization instead.
    return header_widetag(header) == SIMPLE_VECTOR_WIDETAG && vector_subtype(header) == 0;
}

/* Attempt to re-protect code from first_page to last_page inclusive.
 * The object bounds are 'start' and 'limit', the former being redundant
 * with page_address(first_page).
 * Immobile space is dealt with in "immobile-space.c"
 */
static void
update_code_writeprotection(page_index_t first_page, page_index_t last_page,
                            lispobj* start, lispobj* limit)
{
    if (!ENABLE_PAGE_PROTECTION) return;
    page_index_t i;
    for (i=first_page+1; i <= last_page; ++i) // last_page is inclusive
        gc_assert((page_table[i].type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) == CODE_PAGE_TYPE);

    lispobj* where = start;
    for (; where < limit; where += sizetab[widetag_of(where)](where)) {
        switch (widetag_of(where)) {
        case CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG:
            if (header_rememberedp(*where)) return;
            break;
        }
    }
    for (i = first_page; i <= last_page; i++)
        page_table[i].write_protected = 1;
}

/* Scavenge all generations from FROM to TO, inclusive, except for
 * new_space which needs special handling, as new objects may be
 * added which are not checked here - use scavenge_newspace generation.
 *
 * Write-protected pages should not have any pointers to the
 * from_space so do need scavenging; thus write-protected pages are
 * not always scavenged. There is some code to check that these pages
 * are not written; but to check fully the write-protected pages need
 * to be scavenged by disabling the code to skip them.
 *
 * Under the current scheme when a generation is GCed the younger
 * generations will be empty. So, when a generation is being GCed it
 * is only necessary to scavenge the older generations for pointers
 * not the younger. So a page that does not have pointers to younger
 * generations does not need to be scavenged.
 *
 * The write-protection can be used to note pages that don't have
 * pointers to younger pages. But pages can be written without having
 * pointers to younger generations. After the pages are scavenged here
 * they can be scanned for pointers to younger generations and if
 * there are none the page can be write-protected.
 *
 * One complication is when the newspace is the top temp. generation.
 */
static void
scavenge_root_gens(generation_index_t from, generation_index_t to)
{
    page_index_t i;

    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        generation_index_t generation = page_table[i].gen;
        if (page_boxed_p(i)
            && (page_bytes_used(i) != 0)
            && (generation != new_space)
            && (generation >= from)
            && (generation <= to)) {

            /* This should be the start of a region */
            gc_assert(page_starts_contiguous_block_p(i));

            if (large_simple_vector_p(i)) {
                /* Scavenge only the written pages of a large vector.
                 * There are no other large objects of special interest.
                 * Bignums are non-pointer objects, so aren't roots.
                 * INSTANCE and CLOSURE are theoretically capable of being
                 * large, but the compiler can't create them.
                 * Code is for practical purposes read-only after creation
                 * (other than assigning to simple-fun-name and documentation),
                 * and scavenging skips the unboxed portion anyway.
                 * The only potential improvement would be to deal better
                 * with large hash-table storage vectors. */
                if (!page_table[i].write_protected) {
                    scavenge((lispobj*)page_address(i) + 2,
                             GENCGC_CARD_BYTES / N_WORD_BYTES - 2);
                    update_page_write_prot(i);
                }
                while (!page_ends_contiguous_block_p(i, generation)) {
                    ++i;
                    if (!page_table[i].write_protected) {
                        scavenge((lispobj*)page_address(i),
                                 page_bytes_used(i) / N_WORD_BYTES);
                        update_page_write_prot(i);
                    }
                }
            } else {
                page_index_t last_page;
                boolean write_protected = 1;
                /* Now work forward until the end of the region */
                for (last_page = i; ; last_page++) {
                    write_protected =
                        write_protected && page_table[last_page].write_protected;
                    if (page_ends_contiguous_block_p(last_page, generation))
                        break;
                }
                if (!write_protected) {
                    lispobj* start = (lispobj*)page_address(i);
                    lispobj* limit = (lispobj*)(page_address(last_page)
                                                + page_bytes_used(last_page));
                    heap_scavenge(start, limit);
                    /* Now scan the pages and write protect those that
                     * don't have pointers to younger generations. */
                    if (CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION &&
                        (page_table[i].type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) == CODE_PAGE_TYPE) {
                        update_code_writeprotection(i, last_page, start, limit);
                    } else {
                        page_index_t j;
                        for (j = i; j <= last_page; j++) // scan by page
                            update_page_write_prot(j);
                    }
                }
                i = last_page;
            }
        }
    }
}


/* Scavenge a newspace generation. As it is scavenged new objects may
 * be allocated to it; these will also need to be scavenged. This
 * repeats until there are no more objects unscavenged in the
 * newspace generation.
 *
 * To help improve the efficiency, areas written are recorded by
 * gc_alloc() and only these scavenged. Sometimes a little more will be
 * scavenged, but this causes no harm. An easy check is done that the
 * scavenged bytes equals the number allocated in the previous
 * scavenge.
 *
 * Write-protected pages are not scanned except if they are marked
 * pinned, in which case they may have been promoted and still have
 * pointers to the from space.
 *
 * Write-protected pages could potentially be written by alloc however
 * to avoid having to handle re-scavenging of write-protected pages
 * gc_alloc() does not write to write-protected pages.
 *
 * New areas of objects allocated are recorded alternatively in the two
 * new_areas arrays below. */
static struct new_area new_areas_1[NUM_NEW_AREAS];
static struct new_area new_areas_2[NUM_NEW_AREAS];

/* Do one full scan of the new space generation. This is not enough to
 * complete the job as new objects may be added to the generation in
 * the process which are not scavenged. */
static void newspace_full_scavenge(generation_index_t generation)
{
    page_index_t i;

    FSHOW((stderr,
           "/starting one full scan of newspace generation %d\n",
           generation));
    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        if ((page_table[i].gen == generation) && page_boxed_p(i)
            && (page_bytes_used(i) != 0)
            && !page_table[i].write_protected) {
            page_index_t last_page;

            /* The scavenge will start at the scan_start_offset of
             * page i.
             *
             * We need to find the full extent of this contiguous
             * block in case objects span pages. */
            for (last_page = i; ;last_page++) {
                /* Check whether this is the last page in this
                 * contiguous block */
                if (page_ends_contiguous_block_p(last_page, generation))
                    break;
            }

            record_new_regions_below = 1 + last_page;
            heap_scavenge(page_scan_start(i),
                          (lispobj*)(page_address(last_page)
                                     + page_bytes_used(last_page)));
            i = last_page;
        }
    }
    /* Enable recording of all new allocation regions */
    record_new_regions_below = 1 + page_table_pages;
    FSHOW((stderr,
           "/done with one full scan of newspace generation %d\n",
           generation));
}

static void gc_close_all_regions()
{
    ensure_region_closed(&code_region, CODE_PAGE_TYPE);
    ensure_region_closed(&unboxed_region, UNBOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
    ensure_region_closed(&boxed_region, BOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
}

/* Do a complete scavenge of the newspace generation. */
static void
scavenge_newspace(generation_index_t generation)
{
    /* Flush the current regions updating the page table. */
    gc_close_all_regions();

    /* Turn on the recording of new areas. */
    gc_assert(new_areas_index == 0);
    new_areas = new_areas_1;

    /* Start with a full scavenge. */
    newspace_full_scavenge(generation);

    /* Flush the current regions updating the page table. */
    gc_close_all_regions();

    /*FSHOW((stderr,
             "The first scan is finished; current_new_areas_index=%d.\n",
             current_new_areas_index));*/

    while (1) {
        if (!new_areas_index && !immobile_scav_queue_count) { // possible stopping point
            if (!test_weak_triggers(0, 0))
                break; // no work to do
            // testing of triggers can't detect whether any triggering object
            // actually entails new work - it only knows which triggers were removed
            // from the pending list. So check again if allocations occurred,
            // which is only if not all triggers referenced already-live objects.
            gc_close_all_regions(); // update new_areas from regions
            if (!new_areas_index && !immobile_scav_queue_count)
                break; // still no work to do
        }
        /* Move the current to the previous new areas */
        struct new_area *previous_new_areas = new_areas;
        int previous_new_areas_index = new_areas_index;
        /* Note the max new_areas used. */
        if (new_areas_index > new_areas_index_hwm)
            new_areas_index_hwm = new_areas_index;

        /* Prepare to record new areas. Alternate between using new_areas_1 and 2 */
        new_areas = (new_areas == new_areas_1) ? new_areas_2 : new_areas_1;
        new_areas_index = 0;

        scavenge_immobile_newspace();
        /* Check whether previous_new_areas had overflowed. */
        if (previous_new_areas_index >= NUM_NEW_AREAS) {

            /* New areas of objects allocated have been lost so need to do a
             * full scan to be sure! If this becomes a problem try
             * increasing NUM_NEW_AREAS. */
            if (gencgc_verbose) {
                SHOW("new_areas overflow, doing full scavenge");
            }

            newspace_full_scavenge(generation);

        } else {

            int i;
            /* Work through previous_new_areas. */
            for (i = 0; i < previous_new_areas_index; i++) {
                page_index_t page = previous_new_areas[i].page;
                size_t offset = previous_new_areas[i].offset;
                size_t size = previous_new_areas[i].size;
                gc_assert(size % (2*N_WORD_BYTES) == 0);
                lispobj *start = (lispobj*)(page_address(page) + offset);
                heap_scavenge(start, (lispobj*)((char*)start + size));
            }

        }
        /* Flush the current regions updating the page table. */
        gc_close_all_regions();
    }

    /* Turn off recording of allocation regions. */
    record_new_regions_below = 0;
    new_areas = NULL;
    new_areas_index = 0;

#ifdef SC_NS_GEN_CK
    {
        page_index_t i;
        /* Check that none of the write_protected pages in this generation
         * have been written to. */
        for (i = 0; i < page_table_pages; i++) {
            if ((page_bytes_used(i) != 0)
                && (page_table[i].gen == generation)
                && (page_table[i].write_protected_cleared != 0)
                && (page_table[i].pinned == 0)) {
                lose("write protected page %d written to in scavenge_newspace\ngeneration=%d pin=%d",
                     i, generation, page_table[i].pinned);
            }
        }
    }
#endif
}

/* Un-write-protect all the pages in from_space. This is done at the
 * start of a GC else there may be many page faults while scavenging
 * the newspace (I've seen drive the system time to 99%). These pages
 * would need to be unprotected anyway before unmapping in
 * free_oldspace; not sure what effect this has on paging.. */
static void
unprotect_oldspace(void)
{
    page_index_t i;
    char *region_addr = 0;
    char *page_addr = 0;
    uword_t region_bytes = 0;

    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        if ((page_bytes_used(i) != 0)
            && (page_table[i].gen == from_space)) {

            /* Remove any write-protection. We should be able to rely
             * on the write-protect flag to avoid redundant calls. */
            if (page_table[i].write_protected) {
                page_table[i].write_protected = 0;
                page_addr = page_address(i);
                if (!region_addr) {
                    /* First region. */
                    region_addr = page_addr;
                    region_bytes = GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
                } else if (region_addr + region_bytes == page_addr) {
                    /* Region continue. */
                    region_bytes += GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
                } else {
                    /* Unprotect previous region. */
                    os_protect(region_addr, region_bytes, OS_VM_PROT_ALL);
                    /* First page in new region. */
                    region_addr = page_addr;
                    region_bytes = GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
                }
            }
        }
    }
    if (region_addr) {
        /* Unprotect last region. */
        os_protect(region_addr, region_bytes, OS_VM_PROT_ALL);
    }
}

/* Work through all the pages and free any in from_space. This
 * assumes that all objects have been copied or promoted to an older
 * generation. Bytes_allocated and the generation bytes_allocated
 * counter are updated. The number of bytes freed is returned. */
static uword_t
free_oldspace(void)
{
    uword_t bytes_freed = 0;
    page_index_t first_page, last_page;

    first_page = 0;

    do {
        /* Find a first page for the next region of pages. */
        while ((first_page < next_free_page)
               && ((page_bytes_used(first_page) == 0)
                   || (page_table[first_page].gen != from_space)))
            first_page++;

        if (first_page >= next_free_page)
            break;

        /* Find the last page of this region. */
        last_page = first_page;

        page_bytes_t last_page_bytes;
        do {
            /* Free the page. */
            last_page_bytes = page_bytes_used(last_page);
            bytes_freed += last_page_bytes;
            reset_page_flags(last_page);
            set_page_bytes_used(last_page, 0);
            /* Should already be unprotected by unprotect_oldspace(). */
            gc_assert(!page_table[last_page].write_protected);
            last_page++;
        }
        while ((last_page < next_free_page)
               && page_table[last_page].gen == from_space
               && page_bytes_used(last_page));

        /* 'last_page' is the exclusive upper bound on the page range starting
         * at 'first'page'. We have an accurate count of the bytes in use on
         * last_page but there may be intervening pages not 100% full which are
         * treated as full. This can spuriously visit some (0 . 0) conses
         * but is otherwise not a big deal */
        visit_freed_objects(page_address(first_page),
                            npage_bytes(last_page-first_page-1) + last_page_bytes);

#ifdef READ_PROTECT_FREE_PAGES
        os_protect(page_address(first_page),
                   npage_bytes(last_page-first_page),
                   OS_VM_PROT_NONE);
#endif
        first_page = last_page;
    } while (first_page < next_free_page);

    generations[from_space].bytes_allocated -= bytes_freed;
    bytes_allocated -= bytes_freed;
    return bytes_freed;
}

static int
is_in_stack_space(lispobj ptr)
{
    /* For space verification: Pointers can be valid if they point
     * to a thread stack space.  This would be faster if the thread
     * structures had page-table entries as if they were part of
     * the heap space. */
    /* Actually, no, how would that be faster?
     * If you have to examine thread structures, you have to examine
     * them all. This demands something like a binary search tree */
    struct thread *th;
    for_each_thread(th) {
        if ((th->control_stack_start <= (lispobj *)ptr) &&
            (th->control_stack_end >= (lispobj *)ptr)) {
            return 1;
        }
    }
    return 0;
}

struct verify_state {
    lispobj *vaddr;
    lispobj *object_start, *object_end;
    lispobj tagged_object_start;
    uword_t flags;
    int errors;
    generation_index_t object_gen;
    generation_index_t min_pointee_gen;
    unsigned char widetag;
    lispobj *implicit_tagged_subrange_start,
            *implicit_tagged_subrange_end;
};

#define VERIFY_VERBOSE    1
/* AGGRESSIVE = always call valid_lisp_pointer_p() on pointers. */
#define VERIFY_PRE_GC     2
#define VERIFY_POST_GC    4
#define VERIFY_AGGRESSIVE 8
/* QUICK = skip most tests. This is intended for use when GC is believed
 * to be correct per se (i.e. not for debugging GC), and so the verify
 * pass executes more quickly */
#define VERIFY_QUICK      16
/* FINAL = warn about pointers from heap space to non-heap space.
 * Such pointers would normally be ignored and do not be flagged as failure.
 * This can be used in conjunction with QUICK, AGGRESSIVE, or neither. */
#define VERIFY_FINAL      32
/* VERIFYING_foo indicates internal state, not a caller's option */
#define VERIFYING_HEAP_OBJECTS 64
#define VERIFYING_GENERATIONAL 128

// Helpers for verify_range
generation_index_t gc_gen_of(lispobj obj, int defaultval) {
    int page = find_page_index((void*)obj);
    if (page >= 0) return page_table[page].gen;
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
    if (immobile_space_p(obj))
        return immobile_obj_generation(base_pointer(obj));
#endif
    return defaultval;
}
generation_index_t gen_of(lispobj object) { return gc_gen_of(object, 8); }

static boolean __attribute__((unused)) card_protected_p(void* addr)
{
    page_index_t page = find_page_index(addr);
    if (page >= 0) return page_table[page].write_protected;
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
    if (immobile_space_p((lispobj)addr))
        return immobile_card_protected_p(addr);
#endif
    lose("card_protected_p(%p)", addr);
}

// NOTE: This function can produces false failure indications,
// usually related to dynamic space pointing to the stack of a
// dead thread, but there may be other reasons as well.
static void
verify_range(lispobj *where, sword_t nwords, struct verify_state *state)
{
    extern int valid_lisp_pointer_p(lispobj);

    /* Strict containment: no pointer from a heap space may point
     * to anything outside of a heap space. */
    boolean strict_containment = state->flags & VERIFY_FINAL;

    lispobj *end = where + nwords;
    size_t count;
    for ( ; where < end ; where += count) {
        /* Track object boundaries unless verifying non-heap space. A 1-word
         * range resulting from unpacking a quasi-descriptor (compact instance
         * header, fdefn raw addr) passed in as a local var of this function,
         * and identifiable with vaddr != 0, can't start a new object. */
        if (!state->vaddr && where > state->object_end &&
            (state->flags & VERIFYING_HEAP_OBJECTS)) {
            state->object_start = where;
            state->widetag = is_header(*where) ? widetag_of(where) : LIST_POINTER_LOWTAG;
            state->tagged_object_start = compute_lispobj(where);
            state->object_end = where + OBJECT_SIZE(*where, where) - 1;
            state->object_gen = gen_of((lispobj)where);
            // Should not see filler after sweeping all gens
            /* if (!conservative_stack && widetag_of(where) == FILLER_WIDETAG)
                 fprintf(stderr, "Note: filler object @ %p\n", where); */
        }
        count = 1;
        lispobj thing = *where;
        if (where >= state->implicit_tagged_subrange_start &&
            where < state->implicit_tagged_subrange_end) {
            if (thing != 0) thing |= OTHER_POINTER_LOWTAG;
        }

        lispobj callee;

#define GC_WARN(str) \
        fprintf(stderr, "Ptr %p @ %"OBJ_FMTX" (lispobj %"OBJ_FMTX") sees %s\n", \
                 (void*)(uintptr_t)thing, \
                 (lispobj)(state->vaddr ? state->vaddr : where), \
                 state->tagged_object_start, str);

        if (is_lisp_pointer(thing)) {
            /* DONTFAIL mode skips most tests, performing only the strict
             * containinment check */
            if (strict_containment && !gc_managed_heap_space_p(thing))
                GC_WARN("non-Lisp memory");
            generation_index_t to_gen = gen_of(thing);
            if (to_gen < state->min_pointee_gen) state->min_pointee_gen = to_gen;
            if (state->flags & VERIFY_QUICK)
                continue;

#define FAIL_IF(what, why) if (what) { \
    if (++state->errors > 25) lose("Too many errors"); else GC_WARN(why); }

            page_index_t page_index = find_page_index((void*)thing);
            if (page_index >= 0 || immobile_space_p(thing)) {
                if (page_index >= 0) {
                    // If it's within the dynamic space it should point to a used page.
                    FAIL_IF(page_free_p(page_index), "free page");
                    FAIL_IF(!(page_table[page_index].type & OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG)
                            && (thing & (GENCGC_CARD_BYTES-1)) >= page_bytes_used(page_index),
                            "unallocated space");
                } else {
                    // The object pointed to must not have been discarded as garbage.
                    FAIL_IF(!other_immediate_lowtag_p(*native_pointer(thing)) ||
                            filler_obj_p(native_pointer(thing)),
                            "trashed object");
                }
                // Must not point to a forwarding pointer
                FAIL_IF(*native_pointer(thing) == 0x01, "forwarding ptr");
                // Forbid pointers from R/O space into a GCed space
                FAIL_IF((READ_ONLY_SPACE_START <= (uword_t)where &&
                         where < read_only_space_free_pointer),
                        "dynamic space from RO space");
                if (CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION
                    && state->widetag == CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG
                    && to_gen < state->object_gen) {
                    // two things must be true:
                    // 1. the page containing object_start must not be write-protected
                    FAIL_IF(card_protected_p(state->object_start),
                            "younger obj from WP'd code header page");
                    // 2. the object header must be marked as written
                    if (!header_rememberedp(*state->object_start))
                        lose("code @ %p (g%d). word @ %p -> %"OBJ_FMTX" (g%d)",
                             state->object_start, state->object_gen,
                             where, thing, to_gen);
                } else if (state->flags & VERIFYING_GENERATIONAL) {
                    // When testing for old->young ptrs, if from dynamic space then use
                    // the address of the word that holds the pointer in question,
                    // geting the per-page generation. Immobile space has only a generation
                    // per object, and you *must* use the correct object header address.
                    lispobj vaddr = (lispobj)(state->vaddr ? state->vaddr : where);
                    generation_index_t from_gen
                        = gen_of(find_page_index((lispobj*)vaddr) >= 0 ?
                                 vaddr : (lispobj)state->object_start);
                    FAIL_IF(to_gen < from_gen && card_protected_p((lispobj*)vaddr),
                            "younger obj from WP page");
                }
                int valid;
                if (state->flags & VERIFY_AGGRESSIVE) // Extreme paranoia mode
                    valid = valid_lisp_pointer_p(thing);
                else {
                    /* Efficiently decide whether 'thing' is plausible.
                     * This MUST NOT use properly_tagged_descriptor_p() which
                     * assumes a known good object base address, and would
                     * "dangerously" scan a code component for embedded funs. */
                    valid = plausible_tag_p(thing);
                }
                /* If 'thing' points to a stack, we can only hope that the stack
                 * frame is ok, or the object at 'where' is unreachable. */
                FAIL_IF(!valid && !is_in_stack_space(thing), "junk");
            }
            continue;
        }
        int widetag = header_widetag(thing);
        if (is_lisp_immediate(thing) || widetag == NO_TLS_VALUE_MARKER_WIDETAG) {
            /* skip immediates */
        } else if (!(other_immediate_lowtag_p(widetag) && LOWTAG_FOR_WIDETAG(widetag))) {
            lose("Unhandled widetag %d at %p", widetag, where);
        } else if (leaf_obj_widetag_p(widetag)) {
            count = sizetab[widetag](where);
            if (strict_containment && gencgc_verbose
                && widetag == SAP_WIDETAG && where[1])
                fprintf(stderr, "\nStrange SAP %p -> %p\n",
                        where, (void*)where[1]);
        } else switch(widetag) {
                /* boxed or partially boxed objects */
                lispobj layout_word;
                // Two reasons for including funcallable instance here:
                //  (1) the layout may be in the header, and we need to verify it
                //  (2) there may be unboxed words in the object
            case FUNCALLABLE_INSTANCE_WIDETAG:
            case INSTANCE_WIDETAG:
                layout_word = layout_of(where);
                if (layout_word) {
                    state->vaddr = where;
                    verify_range(&layout_word, 1, state);
                    state->vaddr = 0;
                    gc_assert(layoutp(layout_word));
                    struct layout *layout = LAYOUT(layout_word);
                    sword_t nslots = instance_length(thing) | 1;
                    lispobj bitmap = layout->bitmap;
                    gc_assert(fixnump(bitmap)
                              || widetag_of(native_pointer(bitmap))==BIGNUM_WIDETAG);
                    if (lockfree_list_node_layout_p(layout)) {
                        struct instance* node = (struct instance*)where;
                        lispobj next = node->slots[INSTANCE_DATA_START];
                        if (fixnump(next) && next) {
                            state->vaddr = &node->slots[INSTANCE_DATA_START];
                            next |= INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG;
                            verify_range(&next, 1, state);
                            state->vaddr = 0;
                        }
                    }
                    instance_scan((void (*)(lispobj*, sword_t, uword_t))verify_range,
                                  where+1, nslots, bitmap, (uintptr_t)state);
                    count = 1 + nslots;
                }
                break;
            case CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG:
                {
                struct code *code = (struct code *) where;
                sword_t nheader_words = code_header_words(code);
                gc_assert(fixnump(where[1])); // boxed size
                /* Verify the boxed section of the code data block */
                state->min_pointee_gen = 8; // initialize to "positive infinity"
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_UNTAGGED_FDEFNS
                state->implicit_tagged_subrange_start =
                  code->constants + code_n_funs(code) * 4;
                state->implicit_tagged_subrange_end =
                  state->implicit_tagged_subrange_start + code_n_named_calls(code);
#endif
                verify_range(where + 2, nheader_words - 2, state);
                state->implicit_tagged_subrange_start = 0;
                state->implicit_tagged_subrange_end = 0;

                /* Verify the boxed section of each simple-fun */
                for_each_simple_fun(i, fheaderp, code, 1, {
#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_COMPACT_INSTANCE_HEADER)
                    lispobj __attribute__((unused)) layout =
                        function_layout((lispobj*)fheaderp);
                    gc_assert(!layout || layout == LAYOUT_OF_FUNCTION);
#endif
                });
#if CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION
                generation_index_t my_gen = gen_of((lispobj)where);
                boolean rememberedp = header_rememberedp(*where);
                /* The remembered set invariant is that an object is marked "written"
                 * if and only if either it points to a younger object or is pointed
                 * to by a register or stack. (The pointed-to case assumes that the
                 * very next instruction on return from GC would store an old->young
                 * pointer into that object). Non-compacting GC does not have the
                 * "only if" part of that, nor does pre-GC verification because we
                 * don't test the generation of the newval when storing into code. */
                if (compacting_p() && (state->flags & VERIFY_POST_GC) ?
                    (state->min_pointee_gen < my_gen) != rememberedp :
                    (state->min_pointee_gen < my_gen) && !rememberedp)
                    lose("object @ %p is gen%d min_pointee=gen%d %s",
                         where, my_gen, state->min_pointee_gen,
                         rememberedp ? "written" : "not written");
#endif
                count = code_total_nwords(code);
                break;
                }
            case FDEFN_WIDETAG:
                verify_range(where + 1, 2, state);
                callee = fdefn_callee_lispobj((struct fdefn*)where);
                /* For a more intelligible error, don't say that the word that
                 * contains an errant pointer is in stack space if it isn't. */
                state->vaddr = where + 3;
                verify_range(&callee, 1, state);
                state->vaddr = 0;
                count = ALIGN_UP(sizeof (struct fdefn)/sizeof(lispobj), 2);
                break;
            }
    }
}
static uword_t verify_space(lispobj start, lispobj* end, uword_t flags) {
    struct verify_state state;
    memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
    state.flags = flags;
    verify_range((lispobj*)start, end-(lispobj*)start, &state);
    if (state.errors) lose("verify failed: %d error(s)", state.errors);
    return 0;
}
static uword_t verify_gen_aux(lispobj start, lispobj* end, struct verify_state* state)
{
    verify_range((lispobj*)start, end-(lispobj*)start, state);
    return 0;
}
static void verify_generation(generation_index_t generation, uword_t flags)
{
    struct verify_state state;
    memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
    state.flags = flags;
    walk_generation((uword_t(*)(lispobj*,lispobj*,uword_t))verify_gen_aux,
                    generation, (uword_t)&state);
    if (state.errors) lose("verify failed: %d error(s)", state.errors);
}

void verify_heap(uword_t flags)
{
    int verbose = gencgc_verbose | ((flags & VERIFY_VERBOSE) != 0);

    flags |= VERIFYING_HEAP_OBJECTS;

    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr,
                flags & VERIFY_PRE_GC ? "Verify before GC" :
                flags & VERIFY_POST_GC ? "Verify after GC(%d)" :
                "Heap check", // if called at a random time
                (int)(flags>>16)); // generation number

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
#  ifdef __linux__
    // Try this verification if immobile-space was compiled with extra debugging.
    // But weak symbols don't work on macOS.
    extern void __attribute__((weak)) check_varyobj_pages();
    if (&check_varyobj_pages) check_varyobj_pages();
#  endif
    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr, " [immobile]");
    verify_space(FIXEDOBJ_SPACE_START,
                 fixedobj_free_pointer, flags | VERIFYING_GENERATIONAL);
    verify_space(VARYOBJ_SPACE_START,
                 varyobj_free_pointer, flags | VERIFYING_GENERATIONAL);
#endif
    struct thread *th;
    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr, " [threads]");
    for_each_thread(th) {
        verify_space((lispobj)th->binding_stack_start,
                     (lispobj*)get_binding_stack_pointer(th),
                     flags ^ VERIFYING_HEAP_OBJECTS);
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
        verify_space((lispobj)&th->lisp_thread,
                     (lispobj*)(SymbolValue(FREE_TLS_INDEX,0) + (char*)th),
                     flags ^ VERIFYING_HEAP_OBJECTS);
#endif
    }
    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr, " [RO]");
    verify_space(READ_ONLY_SPACE_START, read_only_space_free_pointer, flags);
    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr, " [static]");
    verify_space(STATIC_SPACE_OBJECTS_START, static_space_free_pointer, flags);
    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr, " [dynamic]");
    verify_generation(-1, flags | VERIFYING_GENERATIONAL);
    if (verbose)
        fprintf(stderr, " passed\n");
}

/* Call 'proc' with pairs of addresses demarcating ranges in the
 * specified generation.
 * Stop if any invocation returns non-zero, and return that value */
uword_t
walk_generation(uword_t (*proc)(lispobj*,lispobj*,uword_t),
                generation_index_t generation, uword_t extra)
{
    page_index_t i;
    int genmask = generation >= 0 ? 1 << generation : ~0;

    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        if ((page_bytes_used(i) != 0) && ((1 << page_table[i].gen) & genmask)) {
            page_index_t last_page;

            /* This should be the start of a contiguous block */
            gc_assert(page_starts_contiguous_block_p(i));

            /* Need to find the full extent of this contiguous block in case
               objects span pages. */

            /* Now work forward until the end of this contiguous area is
               found. */
            for (last_page = i; ;last_page++)
                /* Check whether this is the last page in this contiguous
                 * block. */
                if (page_ends_contiguous_block_p(last_page, page_table[i].gen))
                    break;

            uword_t result =
                proc((lispobj*)page_address(i),
                     (lispobj*)(page_bytes_used(last_page) + page_address(last_page)),
                     extra);
            if (result) return result;

            i = last_page;
        }
    }
    return 0;
}


/* Write-protect all the dynamic boxed pages in the given generation. */
static void
write_protect_generation_pages(generation_index_t generation)
{
    page_index_t start = 0, end;
    int n_hw_prot = 0, n_sw_prot = 0;

    // Neither 0 nor scratch can be protected. Additionally, protection of
    // pseudo-static space is applied only in gc_load_corefile_ptes().
    gc_assert(generation != 0 && generation != SCRATCH_GENERATION
              && generation != PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION);

    while (start  < next_free_page) {
        if (!protect_page_p(start, generation)) {
            ++start;
            continue;
        }
        if (protection_mode(start) == LOGICAL) {
            page_table[start].write_protected = 1;
            ++n_sw_prot;
            ++start;
            continue;
        }

        /* Note the page as protected in the page tables. */
        page_table[start].write_protected = 1;

        /* Find the extent of pages desiring physical protection */
        for (end = start + 1; end < next_free_page; end++) {
            if (!protect_page_p(end, generation) || protection_mode(end) == LOGICAL)
                break;
            page_table[end].write_protected = 1;
        }

        n_hw_prot += end - start;
        os_protect(page_address(start),
                   npage_bytes(end - start),
                   OS_VM_PROT_READ | OS_VM_PROT_EXECUTE);

        start = end;
    }

    if (gencgc_verbose > 1) {
        printf("HW protected %d, SW protected %d\n", n_hw_prot, n_sw_prot);
        page_index_t __attribute((unused)) n_total, n_protected;
        n_total = count_generation_pages(generation, &n_protected);
        FSHOW((stderr,
               "/write protected %d of %d pages in generation %d\n",
               n_protected, n_total, generation));
    }
}

#if !GENCGC_IS_PRECISE
static void
preserve_context_registers (void __attribute__((unused)) (*proc)(os_context_register_t),
                            os_context_t __attribute__((unused)) *c)
{
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
    void **ptr;
    /* On Darwin the signal context isn't a contiguous block of memory,
     * so just preserve_pointering its contents won't be sufficient.
     */
#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_DARWIN)||defined(LISP_FEATURE_WIN32)
#if defined LISP_FEATURE_X86
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_EAX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_ECX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_EDX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_EBX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_ESI));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_EDI));
    proc(*os_context_pc_addr(c));
#elif defined LISP_FEATURE_X86_64
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_RAX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_RCX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_RDX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_RBX));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_RSI));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_RDI));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R8));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R9));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R10));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R11));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R12));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R13));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R14));
    proc(*os_context_register_addr(c,reg_R15));
    proc(*os_context_pc_addr(c));
#else
    #error "preserve_context_registers needs to be tweaked for non-x86 Darwin"
#endif
#endif
#if !defined(LISP_FEATURE_WIN32)
    for(ptr = ((void **)(c+1))-1; ptr>=(void **)c; ptr--) {
        proc((os_context_register_t)*ptr);
    }
#endif
#endif // LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
}
#endif

static void
move_pinned_pages_to_newspace()
{
    page_index_t i;

    /* scavenge() will evacuate all oldspace pages, but no newspace
     * pages.  Pinned pages are precisely those pages which must not
     * be evacuated, so move them to newspace directly. */

    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        /* 'pinned' is cleared lazily, so test the 'gen' field as well. */
        if (page_table[i].gen == from_space
            && page_table[i].pinned && page_single_obj_p(i)) {
            page_table[i].gen = new_space;
            /* And since we're moving the pages wholesale, also adjust
             * the generation allocation counters. */
            int used = page_bytes_used(i);
            generations[new_space].bytes_allocated += used;
            generations[from_space].bytes_allocated -= used;
        }
    }
}

lispobj layout_of_layout;
void compute_layout_of_layout()
{
    // Compute layout_of_layout from some structure instance by taking the layout
    // of its layout. T's package serves as an exemplar structure.
    // If you use NIL, then you can't use the convenient casting macro SYMBOL
    // which subtracts the wrong lowtag for ppc64 since NIL is primarily a list
    // and only coincidentally a symbol if the lowtags work out right.
    lispobj* package = (lispobj*)(SYMBOL(T)->package - INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG);
    lispobj layout = instance_layout(package);
    layout_of_layout = instance_layout(LAYOUT(layout));
}

/* Garbage collect a generation. If raise is 0 then the remains of the
 * generation are not raised to the next generation. */
static void NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY
garbage_collect_generation(generation_index_t generation, int raise)
{
    page_index_t i;
    struct thread *th;

    gc_assert(generation <= PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION);

    /* The oldest generation can't be raised. */
    gc_assert(!raise || generation < HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION);

    /* Check that weak hash tables were processed in the previous GC. */
    gc_assert(weak_hash_tables == NULL);

    /* When a generation is not being raised it is transported to a
     * temporary generation (NUM_GENERATIONS), and lowered when
     * done. Set up this new generation. There should be no pages
     * allocated to it yet. */
    if (!raise) {
         gc_assert(generations[SCRATCH_GENERATION].bytes_allocated == 0);
    }

    hopscotch_reset(&pinned_objects);
    // for traceroot, which reads n_stack_pins from the previous GC cycle
    gc_n_stack_pins = 0;;

    /* Set the global src and dest. generations */
    if (generation < PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION) {

        from_space = generation;
        if (raise)
            new_space = generation+1;
        else
            new_space = SCRATCH_GENERATION;

    /* Change to a new space for allocation, resetting the alloc_start_page */
        gc_alloc_generation = new_space;
        RESET_ALLOC_START_PAGES();

    /* Before any pointers are preserved, the pinned flags on the
     * pages need to be cleared. */
    /* FIXME: consider moving this bitmap into its own range of words,
     * out of the page table. Then we can just bzero() it.
     * This will also obviate the extra test at the comment
     * "pinned is cleared lazily" in move_pinned_pages_to_newspace().
     */
        for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++)
            if(page_table[i].gen==from_space)
                page_table[i].pinned = 0;

    /* Un-write-protect the old-space pages. This is essential for the
     * promoted pages as they may contain pointers into the old-space
     * which need to be scavenged. It also helps avoid unnecessary page
     * faults as forwarding pointers are written into them. They need to
     * be un-protected anyway before unmapping later. */
        if (ENABLE_PAGE_PROTECTION)
            unprotect_oldspace();

    } else { // "full" [sic] GC

        /* This is a full mark-and-sweep of all generations without compacting
         * and without returning free space to the allocator. The intent is to
         * break chains of objects causing accidental reachability.
         * Subsequent GC cycles will compact and reclaims space as usual. */
        from_space = new_space = -1;

        // Unprotect the dynamic space but leave page_table bits alone
        if (ENABLE_PAGE_PROTECTION)
            os_protect(page_address(0), npage_bytes(next_free_page),
                       OS_VM_PROT_ALL);

        // Allocate pages from dynamic space for the work queue.
        extern void prepare_for_full_mark_phase();
        prepare_for_full_mark_phase();

    }

    /* Scavenge the stacks' conservative roots. */

    /* there are potentially two stacks for each thread: the main
     * stack, which may contain Lisp pointers, and the alternate stack.
     * We don't ever run Lisp code on the altstack, but it may
     * host a sigcontext with lisp objects in it */

    /* what we need to do: (1) find the stack pointer for the main
     * stack; scavenge it (2) find the interrupt context on the
     * alternate stack that might contain lisp values, and scavenge
     * that */

    /* we assume that none of the preceding applies to the thread that
     * initiates GC.  If you ever call GC from inside an altstack
     * handler, you will lose. */

#if !GENCGC_IS_PRECISE
    /* And if we're saving a core, there's no point in being conservative. */
    if (conservative_stack) {
        for_each_thread(th) {
            void* esp = (void*)-1;
            if (th->state == STATE_DEAD)
                continue;
# if defined(LISP_FEATURE_SB_SAFEPOINT)
            /* Conservative collect_garbage is always invoked with a
             * foreign C call or an interrupt handler on top of every
             * existing thread, so the stored SP in each thread
             * structure is valid, no matter which thread we are looking
             * at.  For threads that were running Lisp code, the pitstop
             * and edge functions maintain this value within the
             * interrupt or exception handler. */
            esp = (void*)os_get_csp(th);
            assert_on_stack(th, esp);

            /* And on platforms with interrupts: scavenge ctx registers. */

            /* Disabled on Windows, because it does not have an explicit
             * stack of `interrupt_contexts'.  The reported CSP has been
             * chosen so that the current context on the stack is
             * covered by the stack scan.  See also set_csp_from_context(). */
#  ifndef LISP_FEATURE_WIN32
            if (th != arch_os_get_current_thread()) {
                long k = fixnum_value(
                    read_TLS(FREE_INTERRUPT_CONTEXT_INDEX,th));
                while (k > 0) {
                    os_context_t* context = nth_interrupt_context(--k, th);
                    if (context)
                        preserve_context_registers((void(*)(os_context_register_t))preserve_pointer,
                                                   context);
                }
            }
#  endif
# elif defined(LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD)
            if(th==arch_os_get_current_thread()) {
                esp = (void*)&raise;
            } else {
                sword_t i,free;
                lispobj* esp1;
                free=fixnum_value(read_TLS(FREE_INTERRUPT_CONTEXT_INDEX,th));
                for(i=free-1;i>=0;i--) {
                    os_context_t *c = nth_interrupt_context(i, th);
                    esp1 = (lispobj*) *os_context_register_addr(c,reg_SP);
                    if (esp1 >= th->control_stack_start && esp1 < th->control_stack_end) {
                        if ((void*)esp1<esp) esp = esp1;
                        preserve_context_registers((void(*)(os_context_register_t))preserve_pointer,
                                                   c);
                    }
                }
            }
# else
            esp = (void*)&raise;
# endif
            if (!esp || esp == (void*) -1)
                UNKNOWN_STACK_POINTER_ERROR("garbage_collect", th);

            // Words on the stack which point into the stack are likely
            // frame pointers or alien or DX object pointers. In any case
            // there's no need to call preserve_pointer on them since
            // they definitely don't point to the heap.
            // See the picture at create_thread_struct() as a reminder.
            lispobj exclude_from = (lispobj)th->control_stack_start;
            lispobj exclude_to = (lispobj)th + dynamic_values_bytes;

            // This loop would be more naturally expressed as
            //  for (ptr = esp; ptr < th->control_stack_end; ++ptr)
            // However there is a very subtle problem with that: 'esp = &raise'
            // is not necessarily properly aligned to be a stack pointer!
            void **ptr;
            for (ptr = ((void **)th->control_stack_end)-1; ptr >= (void**)esp;  ptr--) {
                lispobj word = (lispobj)*ptr;
                // Also note that we can eliminate small fixnums from consideration
                // since there is no memory on the 0th page.
                // (most OSes don't let users map memory there, though they used to).
                if (word >= BACKEND_PAGE_BYTES &&
                    !(exclude_from <= word && word < exclude_to))
                    preserve_pointer((void*)word);
            }
        }
    }
#else
    /* Non-x86oid systems don't have "conservative roots" as such, but
     * the same mechanism is used for objects pinned for use by alien
     * code. */
    for_each_thread(th) {
        lispobj pin_list = read_TLS(PINNED_OBJECTS,th);
        while (pin_list != NIL) {
            pin_exact_root(CONS(pin_list)->car);
            pin_list = CONS(pin_list)->cdr;
        }
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_PPC64
        // Scan the control stack and interrupt contexts for ambiguous code roots.
        // Doing it in gc-common would be too late, since all pinned objects have
        // to be discovered before transporting anything.
        // I think we never store reg_CODE on the control stack (yet) - it will only
        // appear in an interrupt context - so this is probably unnecessary for now.
        // However, I'd like to eliminate LRAs (at least on the PPC64 backend),
        // in which case all the looks-like-fixnum return PCs on the control stack,
        // will need to enliven what they point to.
        // So we will end up doubly traversing the control stack(s), but it should
        // be a performance gain to avoid all the PC adjustments for call/return.
        lispobj *object_ptr;
        for (object_ptr = th->control_stack_start;
             object_ptr < access_control_stack_pointer(th);
             object_ptr++)
            preserve_pointer((void*)*object_ptr);
        int i = fixnum_value(read_TLS(FREE_INTERRUPT_CONTEXT_INDEX,th));
        for (i = i - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
            os_context_t* context = nth_interrupt_context(i, th);
            int j;
            // FIXME: if we pick a register to consistently use with m[ft]lr
            // then we would only need to examine that, and LR and CTR here.
            // We may already be consistent, I just don't what the consistency is.
            static int boxed_registers[] = BOXED_REGISTERS;
            int __attribute__((unused)) ct = 0;
            for (j = (int)(sizeof boxed_registers / sizeof boxed_registers[0])-1; j >= 0; --j)
                preserve_pointer((void*)*os_context_register_addr(context,
                                                                  boxed_registers[j]));
            preserve_pointer((void*)*os_context_lr_addr(context));
            preserve_pointer((void*)*os_context_ctr_addr(context));
        }
#endif // PPC64
    }
#endif

    // Thread creation optionally no longer synchronizes the creating and
    // created thread. When synchronized, the parent thread is responsible
    // for pinning the start function for handoff to the created thread.
    // When not synchronized, The startup parameters are pinned via this list
    // which will always be NIL if the feature is not enabled.
#ifdef STARTING_THREADS
    lispobj pin_list = SYMBOL(STARTING_THREADS)->value;
    for ( ; pin_list != NIL ; pin_list = CONS(pin_list)->cdr ) {
        lispobj lispthread = CONS(pin_list)->car;
        // It would be tempting to say that only the SB-THREAD:THREAD instance
        // requires pinning - because right after we access it to extract the
        // primitive thread, we link into all_threads - but it may be that the code
        // emitted by the C compiler in new_thread_trampoline computes untagged pointers
        // when accessing the vector and the start function, so those would not be
        // seen as valid lisp pointers by the implicit pinning logic.
        // And the precisely GC'd platforms would not pin anything from C code.
        // The tests in 'threads.impure.lisp' are good at detecting omissions here.
        if (lispthread) {
            gc_assert(instancep(lispthread));
            pin_exact_root(lispthread);
            lispobj info = ((struct thread_instance*)
                            (lispthread-INSTANCE_POINTER_LOWTAG))->startup_info;
            if (info) {
                gc_assert(simple_vector_p(info));
                gc_assert(VECTOR(info)->length >= make_fixnum(1));
                lispobj fun = VECTOR(info)->data[0];
                gc_assert(functionp(fun));
                pin_exact_root(info);
                pin_exact_root(fun);
            }
        }
    }
#endif

    if (gencgc_verbose > 1)
        show_pinnedobj_count();

    /* Now that all of the pinned pages are known, and
     * before we start to scavenge (and thus relocate) objects,
     * relocate the pinned pages to newspace, so that the scavenger
     * will not attempt to relocate their contents. */
    if (compacting_p())
        move_pinned_pages_to_newspace();

    /* Scavenge all the rest of the roots. */

#if GENCGC_IS_PRECISE
    /*
     * If not x86, we need to scavenge the interrupt context(s) and the
     * control stack.
     */
    {
        struct thread *th;
        for_each_thread(th) {
            scavenge_interrupt_contexts(th);
            scavenge_control_stack(th);
        }

# ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_SAFEPOINT
        /* In this case, scrub all stacks right here from the GCing thread
         * instead of doing what the comment below says.  Suboptimal, but
         * easier. */
        for_each_thread(th)
            scrub_thread_control_stack(th);
# else
        /* Scrub the unscavenged control stack space, so that we can't run
         * into any stale pointers in a later GC (this is done by the
         * stop-for-gc handler in the other threads). */
        scrub_control_stack();
# endif
    }
#endif

    /* Scavenge the Lisp functions of the interrupt handlers, taking
     * care to avoid SIG_DFL and SIG_IGN. */
    for (i = 0; i < NSIG; i++) {
        union interrupt_handler handler = interrupt_handlers[i];
        if (!ARE_SAME_HANDLER(handler.c, SIG_IGN) &&
            !ARE_SAME_HANDLER(handler.c, SIG_DFL) &&
            // BUG: if a C function pointer can be misaligned such that it
            // looks to satisfy functionp() then we do the wrong thing.
            is_lisp_pointer(handler.lisp)) {
            if (compacting_p())
                scavenge((lispobj *)(interrupt_handlers + i), 1);
            else
                gc_mark_obj(handler.lisp);
        }
    }
    /* Scavenge the binding stacks. */
    {
        struct thread *th;
        for_each_thread(th) {
            scav_binding_stack((lispobj*)th->binding_stack_start,
                               (lispobj*)get_binding_stack_pointer(th),
                               compacting_p() ? 0 : gc_mark_obj);
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
            /* do the tls as well */
            lispobj* from = &th->lisp_thread;
            lispobj* to = (lispobj*)(SymbolValue(FREE_TLS_INDEX,0) + (char*)th);
            sword_t nwords = to - from;
            if (compacting_p())
                scavenge(from, nwords);
            else
                gc_mark_range(from, nwords);
#endif
        }
    }

    if (!compacting_p()) {
        extern void execute_full_mark_phase();
        extern void execute_full_sweep_phase();
        execute_full_mark_phase();
        execute_full_sweep_phase();
        goto maybe_verify;
    }

    /* Scavenge static space. */
    if (gencgc_verbose > 1) {
        FSHOW((stderr,
               "/scavenge static space: %d bytes\n",
               (uword_t)static_space_free_pointer - STATIC_SPACE_OBJECTS_START));
    }
    heap_scavenge((lispobj*)STATIC_SPACE_OBJECTS_START, static_space_free_pointer);

    /* All generations but the generation being GCed need to be
     * scavenged. The new_space generation needs special handling as
     * objects may be moved in - it is handled separately below. */

    // SCRATCH_GENERATION is scavenged in immobile space
    // because pinned objects will already have had their generation
    // number reassigned to that generation if applicable.
    scavenge_immobile_roots(generation+1, SCRATCH_GENERATION);

    scavenge_root_gens(generation+1, PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION);
    scavenge_pinned_ranges();
    /* The Lisp start function is stored in the core header, not a static
     * symbol. It is passed to gc_and_save() in this C variable */
    if (lisp_init_function) scavenge(&lisp_init_function, 1);
    if (gc_object_watcher)  scavenge(&gc_object_watcher, 1);
    if (alloc_profile_data) scavenge(&alloc_profile_data, 1);

    /* Finally scavenge the new_space generation. Keep going until no
     * more objects are moved into the new generation */
    scavenge_newspace(new_space);

    scan_binding_stack();
    smash_weak_pointers();
    /* Return private-use pages to the general pool so that Lisp can have them */
    gc_dispose_private_pages();
    cull_weak_hash_tables(weak_ht_alivep_funs);

    wipe_nonpinned_words();
    // Do this last, because until wipe_nonpinned_words() happens,
    // not all page table entries have the 'gen' value updated,
    // which we need to correctly find all old->young pointers.
    sweep_immobile_space(raise);

    ASSERT_REGIONS_CLOSED();
    hopscotch_log_stats(&pinned_objects, "pins");

    /* Free the pages in oldspace, but not those marked pinned. */
    free_oldspace();

    /* If the GC is not raising the age then lower the generation back
     * to its normal generation number */
    struct generation* g = &generations[generation];
    if (!raise) {
        for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++)
            if ((page_bytes_used(i) != 0)
                && (page_table[i].gen == SCRATCH_GENERATION))
                page_table[i].gen = generation;
        gc_assert(g->bytes_allocated == 0);
        g->bytes_allocated = generations[SCRATCH_GENERATION].bytes_allocated;
        generations[SCRATCH_GENERATION].bytes_allocated = 0;
    }

    /* Reset the alloc_start_page for generation. */
    RESET_ALLOC_START_PAGES();

    /* Set the new gc trigger for the GCed generation. */
    g->gc_trigger = g->bytes_allocated + g->bytes_consed_between_gc;
    g->num_gc = raise ? 0 : (1 + g->num_gc);

maybe_verify:
#ifndef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
    compute_layout_of_layout(); // if it moved
#endif
    if (generation >= verify_gens)
        verify_heap(VERIFY_POST_GC | (generation<<16));
}

static page_index_t
find_next_free_page(void)
{
    page_index_t last_page = -1, i;

    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++)
        if (page_bytes_used(i) != 0)
            last_page = i;

    /* The last free page is actually the first available page */
    return last_page + 1;
}

/*
 * Supposing the OS can only operate on ranges of a certain granularity
 * (which we call 'gencgc_release_granularity'), then given any page rage,
 * align the lower bound up and the upper down to match the granularity.
 *
 *     |-->| OS page | OS page |<--|
 *
 * If the interior of the aligned range is nonempty,
 * perform three operations: unmap/remap, fill before, fill after.
 * Otherwise, just one operation to fill the whole range.
 *
 * This will make more sense once we do a few other things:
 *  - enable manual card marking in codegen
 *  - disable mmap-based page protection
 *  - enable hugepages (so the OS page is much larger than a card)
 */
static void
remap_page_range (page_index_t from, page_index_t to)
{
    /* There's a mysterious Solaris/x86 problem with using mmap
     * tricks for memory zeroing. See sbcl-devel thread
     * "Re: patch: standalone executable redux".
     */
    /* I have no idea what the issue with Haiku is, but using the simpler
     * zero_pages() works where the unmap,map technique does not. Yet the
     * trick plus a post-check that the pages were correctly zeroed finds
     * no problem at that time. So what's failing later and why??? */
#if defined LISP_FEATURE_SUNOS || defined LISP_FEATURE_HAIKU
    zero_pages(from, to);
#else
    size_t granularity = gencgc_release_granularity;
    // page_address "works" even if 'to' == page_table_pages-1
    char* start = page_address(from);
    char* end   = page_address(to+1);
    char* aligned_start = PTR_ALIGN_UP(start, granularity);
    char* aligned_end   = PTR_ALIGN_DOWN(end, granularity);

    if (aligned_start < aligned_end) {
        zero_range_with_mmap(aligned_start, aligned_end-aligned_start);
        zero_range(start, aligned_start);
        zero_range(aligned_end, end);
    } else {
        zero_pages(from, to);
    }
#endif
    page_index_t i;
    for (i = from; i <= to; i++)
        set_page_need_to_zero(i, 0);
}

static void
remap_free_pages (page_index_t from, page_index_t to)
{
    page_index_t first_page, last_page;

    for (first_page = from; first_page <= to; first_page++) {
        if (!page_free_p(first_page) || !page_need_to_zero(first_page))
            continue;

        last_page = first_page + 1;
        while (page_free_p(last_page) &&
               (last_page <= to) &&
               (page_need_to_zero(last_page)))
            last_page++;

        remap_page_range(first_page, last_page-1);

        first_page = last_page;
    }
}

generation_index_t small_generation_limit = 1;

// one pair of counters per widetag, though we're only tracking code as yet
int n_scav_calls[64], n_scav_skipped[64];

/* GC all generations newer than last_gen, raising the objects in each
 * to the next older generation - we finish when all generations below
 * last_gen are empty.  Then if last_gen is due for a GC, or if
 * last_gen==NUM_GENERATIONS (the scratch generation?  eh?) we GC that
 * too.  The valid range for last_gen is: 0,1,...,NUM_GENERATIONS.
 *
 * We stop collecting at gencgc_oldest_gen_to_gc, even if this is less than
 * last_gen (oh, and note that by default it is NUM_GENERATIONS-1) */
void
collect_garbage(generation_index_t last_gen)
{
    generation_index_t gen = 0, i;
    boolean gc_mark_only = 0;
    int raise, more = 0;
    int gen_to_wp;
    /* The largest value of next_free_page seen since the time
     * remap_free_pages was called. */
    static page_index_t high_water_mark = 0;

    FSHOW((stderr, "/entering collect_garbage(%d)\n", last_gen));
    log_generation_stats(gc_logfile, "=== GC Start ===");

    gc_active_p = 1;

    if (last_gen == 1+PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION) {
        // Pseudostatic space undergoes a non-moving collection
        last_gen = PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION;
        gc_mark_only = 1;
    } else if (last_gen > 1+PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION) {
        // This is a completely non-obvious thing to do, but whatever...
        FSHOW((stderr,
               "/collect_garbage: last_gen = %d, doing a level 0 GC\n",
               last_gen));
        last_gen = 0;
    }

    /* Flush the alloc regions updating the page table.
     *
     * GC is single-threaded and all memory allocations during a collection
     * happen in the GC thread, so it is sufficient to update PTEs for the
     * per-thread regions exactly once at the beginning of a collection
     * and update only from the GC's regions thereafter during collection.
     *
     * The GC's regions are probably empty already, except:
     * - The code region is shared across all threads
     * - The boxed region is used in lieu of thread-specific regions
     *   in a unithread build.
     * So we need to close them for those two cases.
     */
#ifdef SINGLE_THREAD_BOXED_REGION
    ensure_region_closed(SINGLE_THREAD_BOXED_REGION, BOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
#endif
    struct thread *th;
    for_each_thread(th) {
        ensure_region_closed(&th->alloc_region, BOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_SB_SAFEPOINT_STRICTLY) && !defined(LISP_FEATURE_WIN32)
        ensure_region_closed(&th->sprof_alloc_region, BOXED_PAGE_FLAG);
#endif
    }
    gc_close_all_regions();

    /* Immobile space generation bits are lazily updated for gen0
       (not touched on every object allocation) so do it now */
    update_immobile_nursery_bits();

    /* Verify the new objects created by Lisp code. */
    if (pre_verify_gen_0)
        verify_heap(VERIFY_PRE_GC);

    if (gencgc_verbose > 1)
        print_generation_stats();

    if (gc_mark_only) {
        garbage_collect_generation(PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION, 0);
        goto finish;
    }

    do {
        /* Collect the generation. */

        if (more || (gen >= gencgc_oldest_gen_to_gc)) {
            /* Never raise the oldest generation. Never raise the extra generation
             * collected due to more-flag. */
            raise = 0;
            more = 0;
        } else {
            raise =
                (gen < last_gen)
                || (generations[gen].num_gc >= generations[gen].number_of_gcs_before_promotion);
            /* If we would not normally raise this one, but we're
             * running low on space in comparison to the object-sizes
             * we've been seeing, raise it and collect the next one
             * too. */
            if (!raise && gen == last_gen) {
                more = (2*large_allocation) >= (dynamic_space_size - bytes_allocated);
                raise = more;
            }
        }

        if (gencgc_verbose > 1) {
            struct generation* __attribute__((unused)) g = &generations[gen];
            FSHOW((stderr,
                   "starting GC of generation %d with raise=%d alloc=%d trig=%d GCs=%d\n",
                   gen, raise, g->bytes_allocated, g->gc_trigger, g->num_gc));
        }

        /* If an older generation is being filled, then update its
         * memory age. */
        if (raise == 1) {
            generations[gen+1].cum_sum_bytes_allocated +=
                generations[gen+1].bytes_allocated;
        }

        memset(n_scav_calls, 0, sizeof n_scav_calls);
        memset(n_scav_skipped, 0, sizeof n_scav_skipped);
        garbage_collect_generation(gen, raise);
        if (gencgc_verbose)
            fprintf(stderr,
                    "code scavenged: %d total, %d skipped\n",
                    n_scav_calls[CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG/4],
                    n_scav_skipped[CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG/4]);

        /* Reset the memory age cum_sum. */
        generations[gen].cum_sum_bytes_allocated = 0;

        if (gencgc_verbose > 1) {
            FSHOW((stderr, "GC of generation %d finished:\n", gen));
            print_generation_stats();
        }

        gen++;
    } while ((gen <= gencgc_oldest_gen_to_gc)
             && ((gen < last_gen)
                 || more
                 || (raise
                     && (generations[gen].bytes_allocated
                         > generations[gen].gc_trigger)
                     && (generation_average_age(gen)
                         > generations[gen].minimum_age_before_gc))));

    /* Now if gen-1 was raised all generations before gen are empty.
     * If it wasn't raised then all generations before gen-1 are empty.
     *
     * Now objects within this gen's pages cannot point to younger
     * generations unless they are written to. This can be exploited
     * by write-protecting the pages of gen; then when younger
     * generations are GCed only the pages which have been written
     * need scanning. */
    if (raise)
        gen_to_wp = gen;
    else
        gen_to_wp = gen - 1;

    /* There's not much point in WPing pages in generation 0 as it is
     * never scavenged (except promoted pages). */
    if ((gen_to_wp > 0) && ENABLE_PAGE_PROTECTION) {
        /* Check that they are all empty. */
        for (i = 0; i < gen_to_wp; i++) {
            if (generations[i].bytes_allocated)
                lose("trying to write-protect gen. %d when gen. %d nonempty",
                     gen_to_wp, i);
        }
        write_protect_generation_pages(gen_to_wp);
    }

    /* Set gc_alloc() back to generation 0. The global regions were
     * already asserted to be closed after each generation's collection.
     * i.e. no more allocations can accidentally occur to any other
     * generation than 0 */
    gc_alloc_generation = 0;

    /* Save the high-water mark before updating next_free_page */
    if (next_free_page > high_water_mark)
        high_water_mark = next_free_page;

    next_free_page = find_next_free_page();
    set_alloc_pointer((lispobj)(page_address(next_free_page)));

    /* Update auto_gc_trigger. Make sure we trigger the next GC before
     * running out of heap! */
    if (bytes_consed_between_gcs <= (dynamic_space_size - bytes_allocated))
        auto_gc_trigger = bytes_allocated + bytes_consed_between_gcs;
    else
        auto_gc_trigger = bytes_allocated + (dynamic_space_size - bytes_allocated)/2;

    if(gencgc_verbose) {
#define MESSAGE ("Next gc when %"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT" bytes have been consed\n")
        char buf[64];
        int n;
        // fprintf() can - and does - cause deadlock here.
        // snprintf() seems to work fine.
        n = snprintf(buf, sizeof buf, MESSAGE, (uintptr_t)auto_gc_trigger);
        ignore_value(write(2, buf, n));
#undef MESSAGE
    }

    /* If we did a big GC (arbitrarily defined as gen > 1), release memory
     * back to the OS.
     */
    if (gen > small_generation_limit) {
        if (next_free_page > high_water_mark)
            high_water_mark = next_free_page;
        remap_free_pages(0, high_water_mark);
        high_water_mark = 0;
    }

    large_allocation = 0;
 finish:
    write_protect_immobile_space();
    gc_active_p = 0;

    if (gc_object_watcher) {
        extern void gc_prove_liveness(void(*)(), lispobj, int, uword_t*, int);
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_C_STACK_IS_CONTROL_STACK
        gc_prove_liveness(preserve_context_registers,
                          gc_object_watcher,
                          gc_n_stack_pins, pinned_objects.keys,
                          gc_traceroot_criterion);
#else
        gc_prove_liveness(0, gc_object_watcher, 0, 0, gc_traceroot_criterion);
#endif
    }

    log_generation_stats(gc_logfile, "=== GC End ===");
    SHOW("returning from collect_garbage");
}

/* Initialization of gencgc metadata is split into two steps:
 * 1. gc_init() - allocation of a fixed-address space via mmap(),
 *    failing which there's no reason to go on. (safepoint only)
 * 2. gc_allocate_ptes() - page table entries
 */
void
gc_init(void)
{
#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_SB_SAFEPOINT)
    alloc_gc_page();
#endif
    // Verify that foo_BIT constants agree with the C compiler's bit packing
    // and that we can compute the correct adddress of the bitfields.
    // These tests can be optimized out of the emitted code by a good compiler.
    struct page test;
    unsigned char *pflagbits = (unsigned char*)&test.gen - 1;
    memset(&test, 0, sizeof test);
    *pflagbits = WRITE_PROTECTED_FLAG;
    gc_assert(test.write_protected);
    *pflagbits = WP_CLEARED_FLAG;
    gc_assert(test.write_protected_cleared);
}

static void gc_allocate_ptes()
{
    page_index_t i;

    /* Compute the number of pages needed for the dynamic space.
     * Dynamic space size should be aligned on page size. */
    page_table_pages = dynamic_space_size/GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
    gc_assert(dynamic_space_size == npage_bytes(page_table_pages));

    /* Default nursery size to 5% of the total dynamic space size,
     * min 1Mb. */
    bytes_consed_between_gcs = dynamic_space_size/(os_vm_size_t)20;
    if (bytes_consed_between_gcs < (1024*1024))
        bytes_consed_between_gcs = 1024*1024;

    /* The page_table is allocated using "calloc" to zero-initialize it.
     * The C library typically implements this efficiently with mmap() if the
     * size is large enough.  To further avoid touching each page structure
     * until first use, FREE_PAGE_FLAG must be 0, statically asserted here:
     */
#if FREE_PAGE_FLAG != 0
#error "FREE_PAGE_FLAG is not 0"
#endif

    /* An extra struct exists as the end as a sentinel. Its 'scan_start_offset'
     * and 'bytes_used' must be zero.
     * Doing so avoids testing in page_ends_contiguous_block_p() whether the
     * next page_index is within bounds, and whether that page contains data.
     */
    page_table = calloc(1+page_table_pages, sizeof(struct page));
    gc_assert(page_table);

    weakobj_init();
    hopscotch_create(&pinned_objects, HOPSCOTCH_HASH_FUN_DEFAULT, 0 /* hashset */,
                     32 /* logical bin count */, 0 /* default range */);

    bytes_allocated = 0;

    /* Initialize the generations. */
    for (i = 0; i < NUM_GENERATIONS; i++) {
        struct generation* gen = &generations[i];
        gen->bytes_allocated = 0;
        gen->gc_trigger = 2000000;
        gen->num_gc = 0;
        gen->cum_sum_bytes_allocated = 0;
        /* the tune-able parameters */
        gen->bytes_consed_between_gc
            = bytes_consed_between_gcs/(os_vm_size_t)HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION;
        gen->number_of_gcs_before_promotion = 1;
        gen->minimum_age_before_gc = 0.75;
    }

    /* Initialize gc_alloc. */
    gc_alloc_generation = 0;
    gc_init_region(&boxed_region);
    gc_init_region(&unboxed_region);
    gc_init_region(&code_region);
}


/* alloc() and alloc_list() are external interfaces for memory allocation.
 * They allocate to generation 0 and are not called from within the garbage
 * collector as it is only external uses that need the check for heap
 * size (GC trigger) and to disable the interrupts (interrupts are
 * always disabled during a GC).
 *
 * The vops that allocate assume that the returned space is zero-filled.
 * (E.g. the most significant word of a 2-word bignum in MOVE-FROM-UNSIGNED.)
 *
 * The check for a GC trigger is only performed when the current
 * region is full, so in most cases it's not needed. */

NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY lispobj*
lisp_alloc(struct alloc_region *region, sword_t nbytes,
           int page_type_flag, struct thread *thread)
{
#ifndef LISP_FEATURE_WIN32
    lispobj alloc_signal;
#endif
    os_vm_size_t trigger_bytes = 0;

    gc_assert(nbytes > 0);

    /* Check for alignment allocation problems. */
    gc_assert((((uword_t)region->free_pointer & LOWTAG_MASK) == 0)
              && ((nbytes & LOWTAG_MASK) == 0));

    if ((os_vm_size_t) nbytes > large_allocation)
        large_allocation = nbytes;

    /* maybe we can do this quickly ... */
    void *new_obj = region->free_pointer;
    char *new_free_pointer = (char*)new_obj + nbytes;
    if (new_free_pointer <= (char*)region->end_addr) {
        region->free_pointer = new_free_pointer;
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_X86_64
        // Non-code allocations should never get here - it would mean there's
        // something wrong in the inline allocator. This assertion pertains
        // to any architecture that always uses an inline allocator.
        // That's actually most of them, but I haven't tested that they're right.
        // e.g. x86 forgoes inline allocation depending on policy,
        // and git revision 05047647 tweaked the edge case for PPC.
        gc_assert(page_type_flag == CODE_PAGE_TYPE);
#endif
        return(new_obj);        /* yup */
    }

    /* We don't want to count nbytes against auto_gc_trigger unless we
     * have to: it speeds up the tenuring of objects and slows down
     * allocation. However, unless we do so when allocating _very_
     * large objects we are in danger of exhausting the heap without
     * running sufficient GCs.
     */
    if ((os_vm_size_t) nbytes >= bytes_consed_between_gcs)
        trigger_bytes = nbytes;

    /* we have to go the long way around, it seems. Check whether we
     * should GC in the near future
     */
    if (auto_gc_trigger && (bytes_allocated+trigger_bytes > auto_gc_trigger)) {
        /* Don't flood the system with interrupts if the need to gc is
         * already noted. This can happen for example when SUB-GC
         * allocates or after a gc triggered in a WITHOUT-GCING. */
        if (read_TLS(GC_PENDING,thread) == NIL) {
            /* set things up so that GC happens when we finish the PA
             * section */
            write_TLS(GC_PENDING,T,thread);
            if (read_TLS(GC_INHIBIT,thread) == NIL) {
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_SAFEPOINT
                thread_register_gc_trigger();
#else
                set_pseudo_atomic_interrupted(thread);
#if GENCGC_IS_PRECISE
                /* PPC calls alloc() from a trap
                 * look up the most context if it's from a trap. */
                {
                    os_context_t *context =
                        thread->interrupt_data->allocation_trap_context;
                    maybe_save_gc_mask_and_block_deferrables
                        (context ? os_context_sigmask_addr(context) : NULL);
                }
#else
                maybe_save_gc_mask_and_block_deferrables(NULL);
#endif
#endif
            }
        }
    }
    if (nbytes >= LARGE_OBJECT_SIZE && !(page_type_flag & CONS_PAGE_FLAG))
        new_obj = gc_alloc_large(nbytes, page_type_flag, region);
    else {
        page_type_flag &= ~CONS_PAGE_FLAG;
        ensure_region_closed(region, page_type_flag);
        gc_alloc_new_region(nbytes, page_type_flag, region);
        new_obj = region->free_pointer;
        new_free_pointer = (char*)new_obj + nbytes;
        gc_assert(new_free_pointer <= (char*)region->end_addr);
        region->free_pointer = new_free_pointer;
        // Refill now if the region is almost empty.
        // This can often avoid the next Lisp -> C -> Lisp round-trip.
        if (addr_diff(region->end_addr, region->free_pointer) <= 4 * N_WORD_BYTES) {
            ensure_region_closed(region, page_type_flag);
            // Request > 4 words, forcing a new page to be claimed.
            gc_alloc_new_region(6 * N_WORD_BYTES, page_type_flag, region);
        }
    }

#ifndef LISP_FEATURE_WIN32
    /* for sb-prof, and not supported on Windows yet */
    alloc_signal = read_TLS(ALLOC_SIGNAL,thread);
    if ((alloc_signal & FIXNUM_TAG_MASK) == 0) {
        if ((sword_t) alloc_signal <= 0) {
            write_TLS(ALLOC_SIGNAL, T, thread);
            raise(SIGPROF);
        } else {
            write_TLS(ALLOC_SIGNAL,
                           alloc_signal - (1 << N_FIXNUM_TAG_BITS),
                           thread);
        }
    }
#endif

    return (new_obj);
}

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
# define MY_REGION &self->alloc_region
#else
# define MY_REGION SINGLE_THREAD_BOXED_REGION
#endif

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_SAFEPOINT_STRICTLY
// FIXME: I suspect that we can forgo manipulation of the PA flag, which appears
// to have been present here only to satisfy an assertion in lisp_alloc.
# define DEFINE_LISP_ENTRYPOINT(name, page_type) \
   lispobj AMD64_SYSV_ABI *name(sword_t nbytes) { \
    struct thread *self = arch_os_get_current_thread(); \
    int was_pseudo_atomic = get_pseudo_atomic_atomic(self); \
    if (!was_pseudo_atomic) set_pseudo_atomic_atomic(self); \
    lispobj *result = lisp_alloc(MY_REGION, nbytes, page_type, self); \
    if (!was_pseudo_atomic) clear_pseudo_atomic_atomic(self); \
    return result; \
   }
#else
# define DEFINE_LISP_ENTRYPOINT(name, page_type) \
   NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY lispobj AMD64_SYSV_ABI *name(sword_t nbytes) { \
    struct thread *self = arch_os_get_current_thread(); \
    gc_assert(get_pseudo_atomic_atomic(self)); \
    return lisp_alloc(MY_REGION, nbytes, page_type, self); \
   }
#endif
DEFINE_LISP_ENTRYPOINT(alloc, BOXED_PAGE_FLAG)
DEFINE_LISP_ENTRYPOINT(alloc_list, BOXED_PAGE_FLAG|CONS_PAGE_FLAG)

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SPARC
void boxed_region_rollback(sword_t size)
{
    struct alloc_region *region = MY_REGION;
    gc_assert(region->free_pointer > region->end_addr);
    region->free_pointer = (char*)region->free_pointer - size;
    gc_assert(region->free_pointer >= region->start_addr
              && region->free_pointer <= region->end_addr);
}
#endif

/*
 * shared support for the OS-dependent signal handlers which
 * catch GENCGC-related write-protect violations
 */
void unhandled_sigmemoryfault(void* addr);

/* Depending on which OS we're running under, different signals might
 * be raised for a violation of write protection in the heap. This
 * function factors out the common generational GC magic which needs
 * to invoked in this case, and should be called from whatever signal
 * handler is appropriate for the OS we're running under.
 *
 * Return true if this signal is a normal generational GC thing that
 * we were able to handle, or false if it was abnormal and control
 * should fall through to the general SIGSEGV/SIGBUS/whatever logic.
 *
 * We have two control flags for this: one causes us to ignore faults
 * on unprotected pages completely, and the second complains to stderr
 * but allows us to continue without losing.
 */
extern boolean ignore_memoryfaults_on_unprotected_pages;
boolean ignore_memoryfaults_on_unprotected_pages = 0;

extern boolean continue_after_memoryfault_on_unprotected_pages;
boolean continue_after_memoryfault_on_unprotected_pages = 0;

int
gencgc_handle_wp_violation(void* fault_addr)
{
    page_index_t page_index = find_page_index(fault_addr);

#if QSHOW_SIGNALS
    FSHOW((stderr,
           "heap WP violation? fault_addr=%p, page_index=%"PAGE_INDEX_FMT"\n",
           fault_addr, page_index));
#endif

    /* Check whether the fault is within the dynamic space. */
    if (page_index == (-1)) {
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
        extern int immobile_space_handle_wp_violation(void*);
        if (immobile_space_handle_wp_violation(fault_addr))
            return 1;
#endif

        /* It can be helpful to be able to put a breakpoint on this
         * case to help diagnose low-level problems. */
        unhandled_sigmemoryfault(fault_addr);

        /* not within the dynamic space -- not our responsibility */
        return 0;

    } else {
#if CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION
        gc_assert((page_table[page_index].type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) != CODE_PAGE_TYPE);
#endif
        // There can not be an open region. gc_close_region() does not attempt
        // to flip that bit atomically. Other threads in the wp violation handler
        // concurrently for the same page are fine because they're all doing
        // the same bit operations.
        gc_assert(!(page_table[page_index].type & OPEN_REGION_PAGE_FLAG));
        unsigned char *pflagbits = (unsigned char*)&page_table[page_index].gen - 1;
        unsigned char flagbits = __sync_fetch_and_add(pflagbits, 0);
        if (flagbits & WRITE_PROTECTED_FLAG) {
            unprotect_page_index(page_index);
        } else if (!ignore_memoryfaults_on_unprotected_pages) {
            /* The only acceptable reason for this signal on a heap
             * access is that GENCGC write-protected the page.
             * However, if two CPUs hit a wp page near-simultaneously,
             * we had better not have the second one lose here if it
             * does this test after the first one has already set wp=0
             */
            if (!(flagbits & WP_CLEARED_FLAG)) {
                void lisp_backtrace(int frames);
                lisp_backtrace(10);
                fprintf(stderr,
                        "Fault @ %p, page %"PAGE_INDEX_FMT" not marked as write-protected:\n"
                        "  boxed_region.first_page: %"PAGE_INDEX_FMT","
                        "  boxed_region.last_page %"PAGE_INDEX_FMT"\n"
                        "  page.scan_start_offset: %"OS_VM_SIZE_FMT"\n"
                        "  page.bytes_used: %u\n"
                        "  page.allocated: %d\n"
                        "  page.write_protected: %d\n"
                        "  page.write_protected_cleared: %d\n"
                        "  page.generation: %d\n",
                        fault_addr,
                        page_index,
                        find_page_index(boxed_region.start_addr),
                        boxed_region.last_page,
                        (uintptr_t)page_scan_start_offset(page_index),
                        page_bytes_used(page_index),
                        page_table[page_index].type,
                        page_table[page_index].write_protected,
                        page_table[page_index].write_protected_cleared,
                        page_table[page_index].gen);
                if (!continue_after_memoryfault_on_unprotected_pages)
                    lose("Feh.");
            }
        }
        /* Don't worry, we can handle it. */
        return 1;
    }
}
/* This is to be called when we catch a SIGSEGV/SIGBUS, determine that
 * it's not just a case of the program hitting the write barrier, and
 * are about to let Lisp deal with it. It's basically just a
 * convenient place to set a gdb breakpoint. */
void
unhandled_sigmemoryfault(void __attribute__((unused)) *addr)
{}

static void
zero_all_free_ranges() /* called only by gc_and_save() */
{
    page_index_t i;
    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        char* start = page_address(i);
        char* page_end = start + GENCGC_CARD_BYTES;
        start += page_bytes_used(i);
        memset(start, 0, page_end-start);
    }
}

/* Things to do before doing a final GC before saving a core (without
 * purify).
 *
 * + Pages in singleton pages aren't moved by the GC, so we need to
 *   unset that flag from all pages.
 * + The pseudo-static generation isn't normally collected, but it seems
 *   reasonable to collect it at least when saving a core. So move the
 *   pages to a normal generation.
 */
static void
prepare_for_final_gc ()
{
    page_index_t i;

    prepare_immobile_space_for_final_gc ();
    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        // Compaction requires that we permit large objects to be copied henceforth.
        // Object of size >= LARGE_OBJECT_SIZE get re-allocated to single-object pages.
        page_table[i].type &= ~SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG;
        if (page_table[i].gen == PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION) {
            int used = page_bytes_used(i);
            page_table[i].gen = HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION;
            generations[PSEUDO_STATIC_GENERATION].bytes_allocated -= used;
            generations[HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION].bytes_allocated += used;
        }
    }

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_SB_THREAD
    // Avoid tenuring of otherwise-dead objects referenced by
    // dynamic bindings which disappear on image restart.
    struct thread *thread = arch_os_get_current_thread();
    char *start = (char*)(thread + 1);
    char *end = (char*)thread + dynamic_values_bytes;
    memset(start, 0, end-start);
#endif
    // Make sure that it's done after zeroing above, the GC needs to
    // see a list there
#ifdef PINNED_OBJECTS
    struct thread *th;
    for_each_thread(th) {
        write_TLS(PINNED_OBJECTS, NIL, th);
    }
#endif
}

/* Set this switch to 1 for coalescing of strings dumped to fasl,
 * or 2 for coalescing of those,
 * plus literal strings in code compiled to memory. */
char gc_coalesce_string_literals = 0;

/* Do a non-conservative GC, and then save a core with the initial
 * function being set to the value of 'lisp_init_function' */
void
gc_and_save(char *filename, boolean prepend_runtime,
            boolean save_runtime_options, boolean compressed,
            int compression_level, int application_type)
{
    FILE *file;
    void *runtime_bytes = NULL;
    size_t runtime_size;
    extern void coalesce_similar_objects();
    boolean verbose = !lisp_startup_options.noinform;

    file = prepare_to_save(filename, prepend_runtime, &runtime_bytes,
                           &runtime_size);
    if (file == NULL)
       return;

    /* The filename might come from Lisp, and be moved by the now
     * non-conservative GC. */
    filename = strdup(filename);

    /* We're committed to process death at this point, and interrupts can not
     * possibly be handled in Lisp. Let the installed handler closures become
     * garbage, since new ones will be made by ENABLE-INTERRUPT on restart */
#ifndef LISP_FEATURE_WIN32
    {
        int i;
        for (i=0; i<NSIG; ++i)
            // BUG: if a C function pointer can be misaligned such that it
            // looks to satisfy functionp() then we do the wrong thing.
            if (functionp(interrupt_handlers[i].lisp))
                interrupt_handlers[i].lisp = 0;
    }
#endif

    /* Collect twice: once into relatively high memory, and then back
     * into low memory. This compacts the retained data into the lower
     * pages, minimizing the size of the core file.
     *
     * But note: There is no assurance that this technique actually works,
     * and that the final GC can fit all data below the starting allocation
     * page in the penultimate GC. If it doesn't fit, things are technically
     * ok, but horrible in terms of core file size.  Consider:
     *
     * Penultimate GC: (moves all objects higher in memory)
     *   | ... from_space ... |
     *                        ^--  gencgc_alloc_start_page = next_free_page
     *                        | ... to_space ... |
     *                                           ^ new next_free_page
     *
     * Utimate GC: (moves all objects lower in memory)
     *   | ... to_space ...   | ... from_space ...| ... |
     *                                                  ^ new next_free_page ?
     * Question:
     *  In the ultimate GC, can next_free_page actually increase past
     *  its ending value from the penultimate GC?
     * Answer:
     *  Yes- Suppose the sequence of copying is so adversarial to the allocator
     *  that attempts to fit an object in a region fail often, and require
     *  frequent opening of new regions. (And/or imagine a particularly bad mix
     *  of boxed and non-boxed allocations such that the logic for resuming
     *  at the tail of a partially filled page in gc_find_freeish_pages()
     *  is seldom applicable)  If this occurs, then some allocation must
     *  be on a higher page than all of to_space and from_space.
     *  Then the entire (zeroed) from_space will be present in the saved core
     *  as empty pages, because we can't represent discontiguous ranges.
     */
    conservative_stack = 0;
    /* We MUST collect all generations now, or else the coalescing by similarity
     * would have to be extra cautious not to create any old->young pointers.
     * Resetting oldest_gen_to_gc to its default is legal, because it is merely
     * a hint to the collector that no significant amount of memory would be
     * freed by increasingly aggressive levels of collection. It is NOT a mandate
     * that some objects be retained despite appearing to be unreachable.
     */
    gencgc_oldest_gen_to_gc = HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION;
    // From here on until exit, there is no chance of continuing
    // in Lisp if something goes wrong during GC.
    prepare_for_final_gc();
    unwind_binding_stack();
    gencgc_alloc_start_page = next_free_page;
    collect_garbage(HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION+1);

    // We always coalesce copyable numbers. Additional coalescing is done
    // only on request, in which case a message is shown (unless verbose=0).
    if (gc_coalesce_string_literals && verbose) {
        printf("[coalescing similar vectors... ");
        fflush(stdout);
    }
    /* FIXME: add comment explaining why coalescing is deferred until
     * after the penultimate GC. Must it wait ? */
    coalesce_similar_objects();
    if (gc_coalesce_string_literals && verbose)
        printf("done]\n");

    /* FIXME: now that relocate_heap() works, can we just memmove() everything
     * down and perform a relocation instead of a collection? */
    if (verbose) { printf("[performing final GC..."); fflush(stdout); }
    prepare_for_final_gc();
    gencgc_alloc_start_page = 0;
    collect_garbage(HIGHEST_NORMAL_GENERATION+1);
#ifdef SINGLE_THREAD_BOXED_REGION // clean up static-space object pre-save.
    gc_init_region(SINGLE_THREAD_BOXED_REGION);
#endif
    /* All global allocation regions should be empty */
    ASSERT_REGIONS_CLOSED();
    // Enforce (rather, warn for lack of) self-containedness of the heap
    verify_heap(VERIFY_FINAL | VERIFY_QUICK);
    if (verbose)
        printf(" done]\n");

    // Scrub remaining garbage
    zero_all_free_ranges();
    // Assert that defrag will not move the init_function
    gc_assert(!immobile_space_p(lisp_init_function));
    // Defragment and set all objects' generations to pseudo-static
    prepare_immobile_space_for_save(verbose);

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_X86_64
    untune_asm_routines_for_microarch();
#endif
    os_unlink_runtime();

    /* The number of dynamic space pages saved is based on the allocation
     * pointer, while the number of PTEs is based on next_free_page.
     * Make sure they agree */
    gc_assert((char*)get_alloc_pointer() == page_address(next_free_page));

    if (prepend_runtime)
        save_runtime_to_filehandle(file, runtime_bytes, runtime_size,
                                   application_type);

    save_to_filehandle(file, filename, lisp_init_function,
                       prepend_runtime, save_runtime_options,
                       compressed ? compression_level : COMPRESSION_LEVEL_NONE);
    /* Oops. Save still managed to fail. Since we've mangled the stack
     * beyond hope, there's not much we can do.
     * (beyond FUNCALLing lisp_init_function, but I suspect that's
     * going to be rather unsatisfactory too... */
    lose("Attempt to save core after non-conservative GC failed.");
}

/* Read corefile ptes from 'fd' which has already been positioned
 * and store into the page table */
void gc_load_corefile_ptes(core_entry_elt_t n_ptes, core_entry_elt_t total_bytes,
                           os_vm_offset_t offset, int fd)
{
    compute_layout_of_layout();
    gc_assert(ALIGN_UP(n_ptes * sizeof (struct corefile_pte), N_WORD_BYTES)
              == (size_t)total_bytes);

    // Allocation of PTEs is delayed 'til now so that calloc() doesn't
    // consume addresses that would have been taken by a mapped space.
    gc_allocate_ptes();

    if (
#if defined(LISP_FEATURE_WIN32) && defined(LISP_FEATURE_64_BIT)
        _lseeki64
#else
        lseek
#endif
        (fd, offset, SEEK_SET) != offset)
        lose("failed seek");

    char data[8192];
    // Process an integral number of ptes on each read.
    // Parentheses around sizeof (type) are necessary to suppress a
    // clang warning (-Wsizeof-array-div) that we're dividing the array size
    // by a divisor that is not the size of one element in that array.
    page_index_t max_pages_per_read = sizeof data / (sizeof (struct corefile_pte));
    page_index_t page = 0;
    generation_index_t gen = CORE_PAGE_GENERATION;
    while (page < n_ptes) {
        page_index_t pages_remaining = n_ptes - page;
        page_index_t npages =
            pages_remaining < max_pages_per_read ? pages_remaining : max_pages_per_read;
        ssize_t bytes = npages * sizeof (struct corefile_pte);
        if (read(fd, data, bytes) != bytes) lose("failed read");
        int i;
        for ( i = 0 ; i < npages ; ++i, ++page ) {
            struct corefile_pte pte;
            memcpy(&pte, data+i*sizeof (struct corefile_pte), sizeof pte);
            // Low 2 bits of the corefile_pte hold the 'type' flags.
            // Low bit of bytes_used indicates a large (a/k/a single) object.
            char type = ((pte.bytes_used & 1) ? SINGLE_OBJECT_FLAG : 0)
                        | (pte.sso & 0x03);
            page_table[page].type = type;
            pte.bytes_used &= ~1;
            if (type != FREE_PAGE_FLAG) {
                /* It is possible, though rare, for the saved page table
                 * to contain free pages below alloc_ptr. */
                set_page_bytes_used(page, pte.bytes_used);
                set_page_scan_start_offset(page, pte.sso & ~0x03);
                page_table[page].gen = gen;
                set_page_need_to_zero(page, 1);
            }
            bytes_allocated += pte.bytes_used;
        }
    }
    generations[gen].bytes_allocated = bytes_allocated;
    gc_assert((ssize_t)bytes_allocated <=
              ((char*)get_alloc_pointer() - page_address(0)));
    // write-protecting needs the current value of next_free_page
    next_free_page = n_ptes;
    if (gen != 0 && ENABLE_PAGE_PROTECTION) {
        // coreparse can avoid hundreds to thousands of mprotect() calls by
        // treating the whole range from the corefile as protectable, except
        // that soft-marked code pages must NOT be subject to mprotect.
        // So just watch out for empty pages and code.  Unboxed object pages
        // will get unprotected on demand.
#define non_protectable_page_p(x) !page_bytes_used(x) || \
              (CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION && \
               (page_table[x].type & PAGE_TYPE_MASK) == CODE_PAGE_TYPE)
        page_index_t start = 0, end;
        // cf. write_protect_generation_pages()
        while (start  < next_free_page) {
            if (non_protectable_page_p(start)) {
                ++start;
                continue;
            }
            page_table[start].write_protected = 1;
            for (end = start + 1; end < next_free_page; end++) {
                if (non_protectable_page_p(end)) break;
                page_table[end].write_protected = 1;
            }
            os_protect(page_address(start),
                       npage_bytes(end - start),
                       OS_VM_PROT_READ | OS_VM_PROT_EXECUTE);
            start = end;
        }
    }
}

/* Prepare the array of corefile_ptes for save */
void gc_store_corefile_ptes(struct corefile_pte *ptes)
{
    page_index_t i;
    for (i = 0; i < next_free_page; i++) {
        /* Thanks to alignment requirements, the two low bits
         * are always zero, so we can use them to store the
         * allocation type -- region is always closed, so only
         * the two low bits of allocation flags matter. */
        uword_t word = page_scan_start_offset(i);
        gc_assert((word & 0x03) == 0);
        ptes[i].sso = word | (0x03 & page_table[i].type);
        page_bytes_t used = page_bytes_used(i);
        gc_assert(!(used & LOWTAG_MASK));
        ptes[i].bytes_used = used | page_single_obj_p(i);
    }
}

void gc_show_pte(lispobj obj)
{
    page_index_t page = find_page_index((void*)obj);
    if (page>=0) {
        printf("page %"PAGE_INDEX_FMT" gen %d type %x ss %p used %x%s\n",
               page, page_table[page].gen, page_table[page].type,
               page_scan_start(page), page_bytes_used(page),
               page_table[page].write_protected? " WP":"");
        return;
    }
#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_IMMOBILE_SPACE
    page = find_varyobj_page_index((void*)obj);
    if (page>=0) {
        printf("page %ld (v) ss=%p gens %x%s\n", page,
               varyobj_scan_start(page),
               varyobj_pages[page].generations,
               card_protected_p((void*)obj)? " WP":"");
        return;
    }
    page = find_fixedobj_page_index((void*)obj);
    if (page>=0) {
        printf("page %ld (f) align %d gens %x%s\n", page,
               fixedobj_pages[page].attr.parts.obj_align,
               fixedobj_pages[page].attr.parts.gens_,
               card_protected_p((void*)obj)? " WP":"");
        return;
    }
#endif
    printf("not in GC'ed space\n");
}

// Return 1 if 'a' is strictly younger than 'b'.
static inline boolean obj_gen_lessp(lispobj obj, generation_index_t b)
{
    generation_index_t a = gen_of(obj);
    if (a == from_space) {
        gc_assert(pinned_p(obj, find_page_index((void*)obj)));
        a  = new_space;
    }
    return ((a==SCRATCH_GENERATION) ? from_space : a) < b;
}

sword_t scav_code_header(lispobj *object, lispobj header)
{
    ++n_scav_calls[CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG/4];

    int my_gen = gc_gen_of((lispobj)object, 127);
    if (my_gen < 127 && ((my_gen & 7) == from_space)) {
        // Since 'from_space' objects are not directly scavenged - they can
        // only be scavenged after moving to newspace, then this object
        // must be pinned. (It's logically in newspace). Assert that.
        gc_assert(pinned_p(make_lispobj(object, OTHER_POINTER_LOWTAG),
                           find_page_index(object)));
        my_gen = new_space;
    }
    struct code* code = (struct code*)object;

    // If the header's 'written' flag is off and it was not copied by GC
    // into newspace, then the object should be ignored.

    // This test could stand to be tightened up: in a GC promotion cycle
    // (e.g. 0 becomes 1), we can't discern objects that got copied to newspace
    // from objects that started out there. Of the ones that were already there,
    // we need only scavenge those marked as written. All the copied one
    // should always be scavenged. So really what we could do is mark anything
    // that got copied as written, which would allow dropping the second half
    // of the OR condition. As is, we scavenge "too much" of newspace which
    // is not an issue of correctness but rather efficiency.
    if (!CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION || header_rememberedp(header)
        || (my_gen == new_space)) {
        // FIXME: We sometimes scavenge protected pages.
        // This assertion fails, but things work nonetheless.
        // gc_assert(!card_protected_p(object));

        /* Scavenge the boxed section of the code data block. */
        sword_t n_header_words = code_header_words((struct code *)object);
        scavenge(object + 2, n_header_words - 2);

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_UNTAGGED_FDEFNS
        // Process each untagged fdefn pointer.
        // If CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION were enabled along with untagged fdefns,
        // then the generation check at the bottom of this function would have to be
        // modified to take into account untagged pointers.
        lispobj* fdefns_start = code->constants + code_n_funs(code) * 4;
        int n_fdefns = code_n_named_calls(code);
        int i;
        for (i=0; i<n_fdefns; ++i) {
            lispobj word = fdefns_start[i];
            if ((word & LOWTAG_MASK) == 0 && word != 0) {
                lispobj tagged_word = word | OTHER_POINTER_LOWTAG;
                scavenge(&tagged_word, 1);
                if (tagged_word - OTHER_POINTER_LOWTAG != word) {
                    fdefns_start[i] = tagged_word - OTHER_POINTER_LOWTAG;
                }
            }
        }
#endif

#ifdef LISP_FEATURE_64_BIT
        /* If any function in this code object redirects to a function outside
         * the object, then scavenge all entry points. Otherwise there is no need,
         * as trans_code() made necessary adjustments to internal entry points.
         * This test is just an optimization to avoid some work */
        if (((*object >> 8) & 0xff) == CODE_IS_TRACED) {
#else
        { /* Not enough spare bits in the header to hold random flags.
           * Just do the extra work always */
#endif
            for_each_simple_fun(i, fun, code, 1, {
                if (simplefun_is_wrapped(fun)) {
                    lispobj target_fun = fun_taggedptr_from_self(fun->self);
                    lispobj new = target_fun;
                    scavenge(&new, 1);
                    if (new != target_fun) fun->self = fun_self_from_taggedptr(new);
                }
            })
        }

        /* If my_gen is other than newspace, then scan for old->young
         * pointers. If my_gen is newspace, there can be no such pointers
         * because newspace is the lowest numbered generation post-GC
         * (regardless of whether this is a promotion cycle) */
        if (CODE_PAGES_USE_SOFT_PROTECTION && my_gen != new_space) {
            lispobj *where, *end = object + n_header_words, ptr;
            for (where= object + 2; where < end; ++where)
                if (is_lisp_pointer(ptr = *where) && obj_gen_lessp(ptr, my_gen))
                    goto done;
        }
        CLEAR_WRITTEN_FLAG(object);
    } else {
        ++n_scav_skipped[CODE_HEADER_WIDETAG/4];
    }
done:
    return code_total_nwords(code);
}
